Comments by "" (@richardkent2014) on "BBC News"
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The invasion of Ukraine reminds us that colonialism does not come in one flavour. In Britain we think of colonialism as the conquest of distant lands and empires as fragmented assortments of foreign territories. Russian colonialism and the Russian empire are different. Rather than sailing to far-off shores, Russia expanded ā east, south, and west ā and absorbed its neighbours.
The Russian model of colonialism by absorption confuses the divide between colonised and colonialists that was so stark in the British and French empires. In some ways Russiaās expansion was less destructive. The transatlantic slave trade and the kind of mass extirpation of indigenous people seen in the Americas have no direct parallels in Russian history. But the recent invasion of Ukraine points to another way of reading Russiaās colonial history. For one of the consequences of absorption is a lack of recognition that any conquest has taken place and, hence, an almost impermeable sense of entitlement. The result is a firm conviction that contiguous lands are not real countries, but mere annexes of Russia. For pro-Putin Russians, it is almost impossible to imagine the military take-over of Ukraine as an invasion; itās more akin to taking back mislaid property.
For Russian ultra-nationalists, Ukraine is still framed by its old imperial label of āLittle Russiaā (and the Ukrainian language is just āLittle Russianā). We might also be reminded of the curious imperial decree from 1863 which banned Ukrainian-language publications on the grounds that āno separate Little Russian language has ever existed, exists, or can existā. Banning something that you claim does not exist might seem unnecessary. It speaks of a combination of defensiveness and dismissiveness.
The diversity of colonial models and, I would argue of forms of racism (Multiracism, Polity Press, 2022), is hard to see and difficult to understand when nearly all our representations of colonialism (and racism) refer to American and Western European models. Universities have a key role in nurturing expertise in the history, politics, and languages of Asia and Africa. Not long ago the idea of globalisation was in the ascendant and āareaā or āregionalā studies went out of fashion. Many were looking forward to a cosmopolitan future when national histories had lost their significance. This agenda now looks like wishful thinking. Today, almost everywhere, nationalism is on the rise. Studying, comparing, and understanding the worldās many stories of colonial power and discrimination has never been more necessary.
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The invasion of Ukraine reminds us that colonialism does not come in one flavour. In Britain we think of colonialism as the conquest of distant lands and empires as fragmented assortments of foreign territories. Russian colonialism and the Russian empire are different. Rather than sailing to far-off shores, Russia expanded ā east, south, and west ā and absorbed its neighbours.
The Russian model of colonialism by absorption confuses the divide between colonised and colonialists that was so stark in the British and French empires. In some ways Russiaās expansion was less destructive. The transatlantic slave trade and the kind of mass extirpation of indigenous people seen in the Americas have no direct parallels in Russian history. But the recent invasion of Ukraine points to another way of reading Russiaās colonial history. For one of the consequences of absorption is a lack of recognition that any conquest has taken place and, hence, an almost impermeable sense of entitlement. The result is a firm conviction that contiguous lands are not real countries, but mere annexes of Russia. For pro-Putin Russians, it is almost impossible to imagine the military take-over of Ukraine as an invasion; itās more akin to taking back mislaid property.
For Russian ultra-nationalists, Ukraine is still framed by its old imperial label of āLittle Russiaā (and the Ukrainian language is just āLittle Russianā). We might also be reminded of the curious imperial decree from 1863 which banned Ukrainian-language publications on the grounds that āno separate Little Russian language has ever existed, exists, or can existā. Banning something that you claim does not exist might seem unnecessary. It speaks of a combination of defensiveness and dismissiveness.
The diversity of colonial models and, I would argue of forms of racism (Multiracism, Polity Press, 2022), is hard to see and difficult to understand when nearly all our representations of colonialism (and racism) refer to American and Western European models. Universities have a key role in nurturing expertise in the history, politics, and languages of Asia and Africa. Not long ago the idea of globalisation was in the ascendant and āareaā or āregionalā studies went out of fashion. Many were looking forward to a cosmopolitan future when national histories had lost their significance. This agenda now looks like wishful thinking. Today, almost everywhere, nationalism is on the rise. Studying, comparing, and understanding the worldās many stories of colonial power and discrimination has never been more necessary.
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European immigration to the AmericasĀ was one of the largest migratory movements in human history. Between the years 1492 and 1930, more than 60 million Europeans immigrated to theĀ American continent. Between 1492 and 1820, approximately 2.6Ā million Europeans immigrated to the Americas, of whom just under 50% were British, 40% were Spanish or Portuguese, 6% were Swiss or German, and 5% were French.
But it was in the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century that European immigration to the Americas reached its historic peak. Never before in human history have so many people immigrated to another continent. Between 1815 and 1930, 60 million Europeans emigrated, of which 71% went to North America, 21% to Latin America, and 7% to Australia.[1]Ā This mass immigration had as a backdrop economic and social problems in theĀ Old World, allied to structural changes that facilitated the migratory movement between the two continents. British people and Iberians continued to immigrate, but influxes from other parts of Europe, particularly Germany, Italy, Ireland,Ā Austria-Hungary, theĀ Russian EmpireĀ andĀ Scandinavian countriesĀ also became numerous.
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Canada and the 13 colonies were both part of British America, but they had different histories and fates:Ā
The 13 colonies
These colonies were established in British America, which also included parts of the Caribbean and the Floridas.Ā The 13 colonies were made up of the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies.Ā The colonies were dominated by Protestant English-speakers, and each had similar legal, constitutional, and political systems.Ā The American Revolution resulted in the 13 colonies winning their independence from Britain.Ā
Canada
The colonization of Canada began in the 10th century with Norsemen exploring the area.Ā The British Empire gained control of New France from France after the Seven Years' War in 1763. The British government ceded the land to Canada in 1867 after confederation.Ā
The American Revolution and Canada
At the beginning of the American Revolution in 1775, rebel forces invaded Canada, occupying Montreal and attacking Quebec.Ā However, the rebels were defeated in Canada.Ā The majority of French Canadians stayed out of the conflict, as they saw it as "better the devil you know than the devil you don't know".Ā The war's outcome led to a wave of Loyalist emigration from the United States to Canada, which changed the make-up of the country.
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Migration and Migrants: Regional Dimensions and Developments
EUROPE
The latest available international migrant stock data (2020)210Ā show that nearly 87 million international migrants lived in Europe211, an increase of nearly 16 per cent since 2015, when around 75 million international migrants resided in the region. A little over half of these (44 million) were born in Europe, but were living elsewhere in the region; this number has increased since 2015, rising from 38 million. In 2020, the population of non-European migrants in Europe reached over 40 million.
In 1990, there were roughly equal numbers of Europeans living outside Europe as non-Europeans living in Europe. However, unlike the growth in migration to Europe, the number of Europeans living outside Europe mostly declined over the last 30 years, and only returned to 1990 levels in recent years. In 2020, around 19 million Europeans were residing outside the continent and were based primarily in Asia and Northern America (see Figure 9). As shown in the figure below, there was also some gradual increase in the number of European migrants in Asia and Oceania from 2010 to 2020.
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TheĀ aftermath of World War IIĀ saw the rise of twoĀ superpowers, theĀ Soviet UnionĀ (USSR) and theĀ United StatesĀ (US). The aftermath ofĀ World War IIĀ was also defined by the rising threat ofĀ nuclear warfare, the creation and implementation of theĀ United NationsĀ as anĀ intergovernmental organization, and theĀ decolonizationĀ ofĀ Asia,Ā Oceania,Ā South AmericaĀ andĀ AfricaĀ byĀ EuropeanĀ andĀ East AsianĀ powers, most notably by theĀ United Kingdom,Ā France, andĀ Japan.
Once allies during World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became competitors on the world stage and engaged in theĀ Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers. It was instead characterized byĀ espionage,Ā political subversionĀ andĀ proxy wars.Ā Western EuropeĀ and Asia were rebuilt through the AmericanĀ Marshall Plan, whereasĀ Central and Eastern EuropeĀ fell under theĀ Soviet sphere of influenceĀ and eventually behind an "Iron Curtain". Europe was divided into a US-ledĀ Western BlocĀ and a USSR-ledĀ Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through theĀ Non-Aligned Movement. The war also saw aĀ nuclear arms raceĀ between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to aĀ mutually assured destructionĀ standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created theĀ United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to theĀ League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlawĀ wars of aggressionĀ in an attempt to avoid aĀ third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed theĀ European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into theĀ European Economic CommunityĀ and ultimately into the currentĀ European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war betweenĀ GermanyĀ andĀ FranceĀ by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war opened the way for decolonization from the great powers. Independence was granted toĀ IndiaĀ andĀ PakistanĀ (from the United Kingdom),Ā IndonesiaĀ (from theĀ Netherlands), theĀ PhilippinesĀ (from the US) and a number ofĀ Arab nations, from specific mandates which had been granted to great powers fromĀ League of Nations MandatesĀ and in addition to the establishment ofĀ IsraelĀ (from the United Kingdom). Independence for the nations ofĀ Sub-Saharan AfricaĀ came in the 1960s.
The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of communist influence in East Asia, with theĀ People's Republic of China, as theĀ Chinese Communist PartyĀ emergedĀ victoriousĀ from theĀ Chinese Civil WarĀ in 1949.
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I have a simple question when it comes to this now our empires don't exist in Europe anymore why does our colonial history in Western Europe today get all the attention when the colonial history of central Europe and eastern Europe including Russia and the ottoman empire get overlooked today.
colonial empireĀ is a collective of territories (often calledĀ colonies), either contiguous with the imperial center or locatedĀ overseas,Ā settledĀ by the population of a certainĀ stateĀ and governed by that state.[1]
ļæ¼Colonial powers in 1898[a]
Before the expansion of early modern European powers, otherĀ empiresĀ had conquered and colonized territories, such as theĀ Roman EmpireĀ in Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. Modern colonial empires first emerged with a race of exploration between the then most advancedĀ EuropeanĀ maritime powers,Ā PortugalĀ andĀ Spain, during the 15th century.[2]Ā The initial impulse behind these dispersed maritime empires and those that followed wasĀ trade, driven by the new ideas and theĀ capitalismĀ that grew out of the EuropeanĀ Renaissance. Agreements were also made to divide the world up between them inĀ 1479,Ā 1493, andĀ 1494. EuropeanĀ imperialismĀ was born out of competition between European Christians andĀ OttomanĀ Muslims, the latter of which rose up quickly in the 14th century and forced the Spanish and Portuguese to seek new trade routes toĀ India, and to a lesser extent, China.
AlthoughĀ colonies existedĀ inĀ classical antiquity, especially amongst theĀ PhoeniciansĀ and theĀ ancient GreeksĀ who settled many islands and coasts of theĀ Mediterranean Sea, these colonies were politically independent from theĀ city-statesĀ they originated from, and thus did not constitute a colonial empire.[3]Ā This paradigm shifted by the time of theĀ Ptolemaic Empire, theĀ Seleucid Empire, and theĀ Roman Empire.
TheĀ European countriesĀ of theĀ modern eraĀ that are most remembered as colonial empires are theĀ United Kingdom,Ā Spain,Ā Portugal,Ā Italy,Ā Netherlands,Ā France,Ā GermanyĀ andĀ Belgium..[4][5]
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Please let that stand
During theĀ interwar period, deep anger arose in theĀ Weimar RepublicĀ over the conditions of the 1919Ā Treaty of Versailles, which punished Germany forĀ its roleĀ inĀ World War IĀ with heavy financialĀ reparationsĀ and severe limitations on its military that were intended to prevent it from becoming a military power again. TheĀ demilitarisationĀ of theĀ Rhineland, the prohibition of German unification withĀ Austria, and the loss of its overseas colonies as well as some 12% of its pre-war land area and population all provoked strong currents ofĀ revanchismĀ in German politics.
During the worldwide economic crisis of theĀ Great DepressionĀ in the 1930s, many people lost faith in liberal democracy and countries across the world turned to authoritarian regimes.[1]Ā In Germany, resentment over the terms of the Treaty of Versailles was intensified by the instability of the German political system, as many on both the Right and the Left rejected the Weimar Republic liberalism. The most extreme political aspirant to emerge from that situation wasĀ Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazi Party. The NazisĀ took totalitarian power in GermanyĀ from 1933 and demanded the undoing of the Versailles provisions. Their ambitious and aggressive domestic and foreign policies reflected their ideologies ofĀ antisemitism,Ā unification of all Germans, the acquisition of "living space" (Lebensraum) for agrarian settlers, the elimination ofĀ BolshevismĀ and the hegemony of an "Aryan"/"Nordic"Ā master raceĀ over "subhumans" (Untermenschen) such asĀ JewsĀ andĀ Slavs. Other factors leading to the war included the aggression byĀ Fascist ItalyĀ against Ethiopia, militarism inĀ Imperial JapanĀ againstĀ China, andĀ Military occupations by the Soviet Union.
At first, the aggressive moves met with only feeble and ineffectual policies ofĀ appeasementĀ from the other major world powers. TheĀ League of NationsĀ proved helpless, especially regarding China and Ethiopia. A decisive proximate event was the 1938Ā Munich Conference, which formally approved Germany's annexation of theĀ SudetenlandĀ from Czechoslovakia. Hitler promised it was his last territorial claim, nevertheless in early 1939, he became even more aggressive, and European governments finally realised that appeasement would not guarantee peace but by then it was too late.
Britain and France rejected diplomatic efforts to form a military alliance with the Soviet Union, and Hitler instead offered Stalin a better deal in the MolotovāRibbentrop Pact of August 1939. An alliance formed by Germany, Italy, and Japan led to the establishment of theĀ Axis powers.
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The UN General Assembly has adopted a Palestinian-drafted, non-binding resolution demanding Israel end "its unlawful presence in the Occupied Palestinian Territory" within 12 months.
There were 124 votes in favour and 14 against, including Israel, along with 43 abstentions. As a non-member observer state, Palestine could not vote.
The resolution is based on a July advisory opinion from the UN's highest court that said Israel was occupying the West Bank, East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip against international law.
The Palestinian ambassador called the vote a turning point āin our struggle for freedom and justiceā. But his Israeli counterpart denounced it as ādiplomatic terrorismā.
Although the General Assemblyās resolutions are not binding, they carry symbolic and political weight given they reflect the positions of all 193 member states of the UN.
It comes after almost a year of war in Gaza, which began when Hamas gunmen attacked Israel on 7 October, killing about 1,200 people and taking 251 others as hostages.
More than 41,110 people have been killed in Gaza since then, according to the territory's Hamas-run health ministry.
There has also been a spike in violence in the West Bank over the same period, in which the UN says more than 680 Palestinians and 22 Israelis have been killed. Another 10 Israelis have been killed in attacks by Palestinians in Israel.
The advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ)Ā - which was also not legally binding - said a 15-judge panel had found that "Israel's continued presence in the Occupied Palestinian Territory is unlawfulā and that the country was āunder an obligation to bring to an end its unlawful presence... as rapidly as possibleā.
The court also said Israel should āevacuate all settlers from the Occupied Palestinian Territoryā and āmake reparation for the damage caused to all the natural or legal persons concernedā.
Israel has built about 160 settlements housing some 700,000 Jews in the West Bank and East Jerusalem since 1967. The court said the settlements āhave been established and are being maintained in violation of international lawā, which Israel has consistently disputed.
Israel's prime minister said at the time that the court had made a "decision of lies" and insisted that āthe Jewish people are not occupiers in their own landā.
Wednesdayās General Assembly resolutionĀ welcomed the ICJās declaration.
It demands that Israel ābrings to an end without delay its unlawful presence in the Occupied Palestinian Territory... and do so no later than 12 monthsā, and ācomply without delay with all its legal obligations under international lawā.
The West Bank-based Palestinian Authorityās foreign ministry described its passing as a āpivotal and historic moment for the Palestinian cause and international lawā.
It emphasised that the support of almost two thirds of UN member states reflected āa global consensus that the occupation must end and its crimes must ceaseā, and that it āreaffirmed the Palestinian peopleās inalienable right to self-determinationā.
Israelās foreign ministry called the resolution āa distorted decision that is disconnected from reality, encourages terrorism and harms the chances for peaceā, adding: āThis is what cynical international politics looks like.ā
It said the resolution ābolsters and strengthens the Hamas terrorist organisationā and āsends a message that terrorism pays off and yields international resolutionsā. It also accused the Palestinian Authority of āconducting a campaign whose goal is not to resolve the conflict but to harm Israelā and vowed to respond.
The US, which voted against the resolution, warned beforehand that the text was āone-sidedā and āselectively interprets the substance of the ICJās opinionā.
āThere is no path forward or hope offered through this resolution today. Its adoption will not save Palestinian lives, bring the hostages home, end Israeli settlements, or reinvigorate the peace process,ā Ambassador Linda Thomas-Greenfield said.
The UKās ambassador, Barbara Woodward, explained that it had abstained ānot because we do not support the central findings of the ICJ's advisory opinion, but rather because the resolution does not provide sufficient clarity to effectively advance our shared aim of a peace premised on a negotiated two-state solutionā.
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The Oslo Accords and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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Austria wasĀ occupiedĀ by theĀ AlliesĀ and declared independent fromĀ Nazi GermanyĀ on 27 April 1945 (confirmed by theĀ Berlin DeclarationĀ for Germany on 5 June 1945), as a result of theĀ Vienna offensive. The occupation ended when theĀ Austrian State TreatyĀ came into force on 27 July 1955.
After theĀ AnschlussĀ in 1938,Ā AustriaĀ had generally been recognized as part of Nazi Germany. In 1943, however, the Allies agreed in theĀ Declaration of MoscowĀ that Austria would instead be regarded asĀ the first victim of Nazi aggressionāwithout denying Austria's role in Nazi crimesāand treated as a liberated and independent country after the war.
In the immediateĀ aftermath of World War II, Austria was divided into four occupation zones and jointly occupied by theĀ United Kingdom, theĀ Soviet Union, theĀ United States, andĀ France.Ā ViennaĀ was similarly subdivided, but the central district was collectively administered by theĀ Allied Control Council.
Whereas Germany was divided intoĀ EastĀ andĀ West GermanyĀ in 1949, Austria remained under joint occupation of the Western Allies and the Soviet Union until 1955; its status became a controversial subject in theĀ Cold WarĀ until the warming of relations known as theĀ Khrushchev Thaw. After Austrian promises of perpetual neutrality, Austria was accorded full independence on 15 May 1955 and the last occupation troops left on 25 October that year.
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The invasion of Ukraine reminds us that colonialism does not come in one flavour. In Britain we think of colonialism as the conquest of distant lands and empires as fragmented assortments of foreign territories. Russian colonialism and the Russian empire are different. Rather than sailing to far-off shores, Russia expanded ā east, south, and west ā and absorbed its neighbours.
The Russian model of colonialism by absorption confuses the divide between colonised and colonialists that was so stark in the British and French empires. In some ways Russiaās expansion was less destructive. The transatlantic slave trade and the kind of mass extirpation of indigenous people seen in the Americas have no direct parallels in Russian history. But the recent invasion of Ukraine points to another way of reading Russiaās colonial history. For one of the consequences of absorption is a lack of recognition that any conquest has taken place and, hence, an almost impermeable sense of entitlement. The result is a firm conviction that contiguous lands are not real countries, but mere annexes of Russia. For pro-Putin Russians, it is almost impossible to imagine the military take-over of Ukraine as an invasion; itās more akin to taking back mislaid property.
For Russian ultra-nationalists, Ukraine is still framed by its old imperial label of āLittle Russiaā (and the Ukrainian language is just āLittle Russianā). We might also be reminded of the curious imperial decree from 1863 which banned Ukrainian-language publications on the grounds that āno separate Little Russian language has ever existed, exists, or can existā. Banning something that you claim does not exist might seem unnecessary. It speaks of a combination of defensiveness and dismissiveness.
The diversity of colonial models and, I would argue of forms of racism (Multiracism, Polity Press, 2022), is hard to see and difficult to understand when nearly all our representations of colonialism (and racism) refer to American and Western European models. Universities have a key role in nurturing expertise in the history, politics, and languages of Asia and Africa. Not long ago the idea of globalisation was in the ascendant and āareaā or āregionalā studies went out of fashion. Many were looking forward to a cosmopolitan future when national histories had lost their significance. This agenda now looks like wishful thinking. Today, almost everywhere, nationalism is on the rise. Studying, comparing, and understanding the worldās many stories of colonial power and discrimination has never been more necessary.
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TheĀ Russian Empire[e][f]Ā was a vastĀ empireĀ that spanned most of northernĀ EurasiaĀ from its proclamation in November 1721 untilĀ its dissolutionĀ in March 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about 22,800,000 square kilometres (8,800,000Ā sqĀ mi), roughly one-sixth of the world's landmass, making it theĀ third-largest empire in history, behind only theĀ BritishĀ andĀ MongolĀ empires. It alsoĀ held coloniesĀ inĀ North AmericaĀ between 1799 and 1867. The empire'sĀ 1897Ā census, the only one it conducted, found a population of 125.6 million with considerable ethnic, linguistic, religious, and socioeconomic diversity.
Russian Empire
Š Š¾ŃŃŃŠ¹ŃŠŗŠ°Ń ŠŠ¼ŠæŠµŃŃŃ
Š Š¾ŃŃŠøŠ¹ŃŠŗŠ°Ń ŠŠ¼ŠæŠµŃŠøŃ
Rossiyskaya Imperiya
1721ā1917
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Top:
Civil ensign (1696ā1917);
State flag (1896ā1917)
Bottom:
State flag (1858ā1896)
ļæ¼
Coat of arms
(1882ā1917)
Motto:Ā "Š”Ń Š½Š°Š¼Šø ŠŠ¾Š³Ń!"
S' nami Bog!Ā ("God is with us!")Anthem:Ā "ŠŠ¾Š¶Šµ, Š¦Š°ŃŃ Ń
ŃŠ°Š½Šø!"
Bozhe Tsarya khrani!Ā (1833ā1917)
("God Save the Tsar!")
Duration: 1 minute and 57 seconds.1:57
show
Other used anthems:
ļæ¼
Ā Ā Ā Ā Ā Russia in 1914Ā Ā Ā Ā Ā Ā Lost in 1856ā1914
Ā Ā Ā Ā Ā Spheres of influenceĀ Ā Ā Ā Ā Ā Protectorates[a]
Show globeShow map of EuropeShow all controlled
territories (1866)Show all
CapitalSaint Petersburg[b]
(1721ā1728; 1730ā1917)
Moscow
(1728ā1730)[2]Largest citySaint PetersburgOfficialĀ languagesRussianRecognisedĀ languagesPolish,Ā GermanĀ (inĀ Baltic provinces),Ā Finnish,Ā Swedish,Ā ChineseĀ (inĀ Dalian)ReligionĀ
(1897)
84.2%Ā Christianity
69.3%Ā Eastern OrthodoxĀ (official)[3]
9.2%Ā Catholic
5.7% OtherĀ Christian
11.1%Ā Islam
4.2%Ā Judaism
0.3%Ā Buddhism
0.2% Others
Demonym(s)RussianGovernmentUnitaryĀ absolute monarchy
(1721ā1906)
UnitaryĀ parliamentaryĀ semi-constitutional monarchy[4]
(1906ā1917)EmperorĀ
ā¢Ā 1721ā1725 (first)
Peter the Great
ā¢Ā 1894ā1917 (last)
Nicholas II
Chancellor/Prime Minister
Ā
ā¢Ā 1810ā1812 (first)
Nikolai Rumyantsev[c]
ā¢Ā 1917 (last)
Nikolai Golitsyn[d]LegislatureGoverning Senate[5]
ā¢Ā Upper house
State Council
(1810ā1917)
ā¢Ā Lower house
State Duma
(1905ā1917)HistoryĀ
ā¢Ā Treaty of Nystad
10 September 1721
ā¢Ā Proclaimed
2 November 1721
ā¢Ā Table of Ranks
4 February 1722
ā¢Ā Decembrist revolt
26 December 1825
ā¢Ā Emancipation reform
3 March 1861
ā¢Ā SellingĀ ofĀ Alaska
18 October 1867
ā¢Ā 1905 Revolution
Jan 1905 ā Jul 1907
ā¢Ā October Manifesto
30 October 1905
ā¢Ā ConstitutionĀ adopted
6 May 1906
ā¢Ā February Revolution
8ā16 March 1917
ā¢Ā Proclamation of theĀ Republic
14 September 1917Area1895[6]22,800,000Ā km2Ā (8,800,000Ā sqĀ mi)Population
ā¢Ā 1897
125,640,021
ā¢Ā 1910[7][8][9]
161,000,000CurrencyRussian ruble
Preceded bySucceeded byļæ¼Tsardom of
RussiaProvisional Governmentļæ¼Russian Republicļæ¼
The rise of the Russian Empire coincided with the decline of neighbouring rival powers: theĀ Swedish Empire, theĀ PolishāLithuanian Commonwealth,Ā Qajar Iran, theĀ Ottoman Empire, andĀ Qing China. From the 10th to 17th centuries, the Russians had been ruled by a noble class known as theĀ boyars, above whom was an absolute monarch titled theĀ tsar. The groundwork of the Russian Empire was laid byĀ Ivan IIIĀ (r.ā1462ā1505), who greatly expanded his domain, established a centralized RussianĀ national state, and secured independence against theĀ Tatars. His grandson,Ā Ivan IVĀ (r.ā1533ā1584), became in 1547 the first Russian monarch to be crowned "tsar of all Russia". Between 1550 and 1700, the Russian state grew by an average of 35,000 square kilometres (14,000Ā sqĀ mi) per year. Major events during this period include the transition from theĀ RurikĀ to theĀ RomanovĀ dynasties, theĀ conquest of Siberia, and the reign ofĀ Peter the GreatĀ (r.ā1682ā1725).[10]
PeterĀ transformed the tsardom into an empire, and fought numerous wars that turned a vast realm into a major European power. He moved the Russian capital fromĀ MoscowĀ to the new model city ofĀ Saint Petersburg, which marked the birth of the imperial era, and led a cultural revolution that introduced a modern, scientific, rationalist, and Western-oriented system.Ā Catherine the GreatĀ (r.ā1762ā1796) presided over further expansion of the Russian state by conquest,Ā colonization, and diplomacy, while continuing Peter's policy of modernization towards a Western model.Ā Alexander IĀ (r.ā1801ā1825) helped defeat the militaristic ambitions ofĀ NapoleonĀ and subsequently constituted theĀ Holy Alliance, which aimed to restrain the rise of secularism and liberalism across Europe. Russia further expanded to the west, south, and east, strengthening its position as a European power. Its victories in theĀ Russo-Turkish WarsĀ were later checked by defeat in theĀ Crimean WarĀ (1853ā1856), leading to a period of reform andĀ intensified expansion into Central Asia.[11]Ā Alexander IIĀ (r.ā1855ā1881) initiatedĀ numerous reforms, most notably theĀ 1861 emancipationĀ of all 23 million serfs.
From 1721 until 1762, the Russian Empire was ruled by theĀ House of Romanov; its matrilineal branch of patrilinealĀ GermanĀ descent, theĀ House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov, ruled from 1762 until 1917. By the start of the 19th century, Russian territory extended from theĀ Arctic OceanĀ in the north to theĀ Black SeaĀ in the south, and from theĀ Baltic SeaĀ in the west toĀ Alaska, Hawaii, and CaliforniaĀ in the east. By the end of the 19th century, Russia had expanded its control overĀ the Caucasus, most ofĀ Central AsiaĀ and parts ofĀ Northeast Asia. Notwithstanding its extensive territorial gains and great power status, the empire entered the 20th century in a perilous state. A devastatingĀ famine in 1891ā1892Ā killed hundreds of thousands and led to popular discontent. As the last remainingĀ absolute monarchyĀ in Europe, the empire saw rapid political radicalization and the growing popularity of revolutionary ideas such asĀ communism.[12]Ā After theĀ 1905 revolution,Ā Nicholas IIĀ authorized the creation of a national parliament, theĀ State Duma, although he still retained absolute political power.
When Russia entered the First World War on the side of theĀ Allies, it suffered a series of defeats that further galvanized the population against the emperor. In 1917, mass unrest among the population and mutinies in the army culminated in theĀ February Revolution, which led to the abdication of Nicholas II, the formation of theĀ Russian Provisional Government, and the proclamation of the firstĀ Russian Republic. Political dysfunction, continued involvement in the widely unpopular war, and widespread food shortages resulted inĀ mass demonstrations against the government in July. The republic was overthrown in theĀ October RevolutionĀ by theĀ Bolsheviks, whoseĀ Treaty of Brest-LitovskĀ ended Russia's involvement in the war, but who nevertheless were opposed by various factions known collectively as theĀ Whites.[13][14]Ā During the resultingĀ Russian Civil War, theĀ Bolsheviks murdered the Romanov family, ending three centuries of Romanov rule. After emerging victorious in 1923, the Bolsheviks established theĀ Soviet UnionĀ across most of the territory of the former Russian Empire; it would be one of four continental empires to collapseĀ after World War I, along withĀ Germany,Ā AustriaāHungary, and theĀ Ottoman Empire.[15]
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Ā @diegoflores9237Ā I doubt they will let this stand but let's see
Processes ofĀ decolonizationĀ inĀ UkraineĀ began during theĀ dissolution of the Soviet UnionĀ and accelerated during theĀ Revolution of Dignity, theĀ Russo-Ukrainian WarĀ and especially the full-scaleĀ Russian invasion of Ukraine.[1]
The term as used by the people of Ukraine is generally collective, encompassing bothĀ decommunizationĀ andĀ derussificationĀ in the country.[2]
During the war, the main component of Ukraine's politics of memory is decolonization, as a continuation of decommunization, which began in 2015, and deRussification, which was launched by some local authorities and right-wing activists after the full-scale Russian invasion. Decolonization of memory involves the removal of symbols from the public space, including names and memorial signs that are viewed as markers of Russian imperial policy. Ukraine aims to distance itself from the influence of Russian historiography, shape its own national historical narrative, and develop politics of memory connected with the European tradition. The intended outcome of decolonization is to sever the cultural and historical ties between Ukraine and Russia, thereby preventing anyone from considering Ukrainians and Russians as either "one nation" or "brotherly nations".[2]
Implementation of the decolonisation politics involves several components:[3]
Legislative regulation of historical memory. It has been legally implemented through fourĀ Ukrainian decommunization laws, as well as the 2023 law "On the Condemnation and Prohibition of Propaganda of Russian Imperial Policy in Ukraine and the Decolonization of Toponymy".[4][5]
Destruction of monuments, renaming of toponyms. Following the full-scale invasion, monuments and toponyms associated with Russia and the USSR began to be perceived as markers of the invader, through which the empire "branded" its territory.
Installation of monuments to the victims of Russian aggression.
Reevaluation of holidays.
Modifications in the school history curriculum. The colonial status of Ukraine within the Russian Empire/ USSR becomes the central narrative.
Removal of Russian and Soviet literature from libraries.
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In fact instead of playing these games I would sooner address it now as a Brit we have nothing to loose as a nation now. 100 years on the middle east is what it is today because of this end bit everyone was against us
liaison role during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign and the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. The breadth and variety of his activities and associations, and his ability to describe them vividly in writing, earned him international fame as Lawrence of Arabiaāa title used for the 1962 film based on his wartime activities.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement, officially known as the Asia Minor Agreement, was a secret 1916 agreement between Great Britain and France, to which the Russian Empire assented. The agreement defined their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control in Southwestern Asia. The agreement was based on the premise that the Triple Entente would succeed in defeating the Ottoman Empire during World War I. The negotiations leading to the agreement occurred between November 1915 and March 1916, Ā and it was signed May 16, 1916. The deal was exposed to the public in 1917. The agreement is still mentioned when considering the region and its present-day conflicts.
The agreement allocated to Britain control of areas roughly comprising the coastal strip between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan, Jordan, southern Iraq, and an additional small area that included the ports of Haifa and Acre, to allow access to the Mediterranean. France got control of southeastern Turkey, northern Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. Russia received Istanbul, the Turkish Straits and Armenia. The controlling powers were left free to determine state boundaries within their areas. Further negotiation was expected to determine international administration pending consultations with Russia and other powers, including Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca.
Given Ottoman defeat in 1918 and the subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the agreement effectively divided the Ottoman Arab provinces outside the Arabian peninsula into areas of British and French control and influence. An international administration was proposed for Palestine as part of the Acre-Haifa zone, intended to be an British enclave in northern Palestine to enable access to the Mediterranean. The British gained control of the territory in 1920 and ruled it as Mandatory Palestine from 1923 until 1948. They also ruled Mandatory Iraq from 1920 until 1932, while the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon lasted from 1923 to 1946.
The terms were negotiated by British diplomat Mark Sykes and a French counterpart, FranƧois Georges-Picot. The Tsarist government was a minor party to the Sykes-Picot agreement; when the Bolsheviks published the agreement on November 23, 1917, after the Russian Revolution, āthe British were embarrassed, the Arabs dismayed and the Turks delighted.ā
The agreement is seen by many as a turning point in Western and Arab relations. It negated the UKās promises to Arabs made through Colonel T. E. Lawrence for a national Arab homeland in the area of Greater Syria in exchange for supporting the British against the Ottoman Empire.
ļæ¼
Sykes-Picot Agreement:Ā Map of Sykes-Picot Agreement showing Eastern Turkey in Asia, Syria, and Western Persia, and areas of control and influence agreed between the British and the French. It was an enclosure in Paul Cambonās letter to Sir Edward Grey, May 9, 1916.
Consequences
Leading up to the centenary of Sykes-Picot in 2016, great interest was generated among the media and academia in the long-term effects of the agreement. It is frequently cited as having created āartificialā borders in the Middle East, āwithout any regard to ethnic or sectarian characteristics, [which] has resulted in endless conflict.ā The extent to which Sykes-Picot actually shaped the borders of the modern Middle East is disputed, and scholars often attribute instability in the region to other factors.
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) claims one of the goals of its insurgency is to reverse the effects of the SykesāPicot Agreement. āThis is not the first border we will break, we will break other borders,ā a jihadist from the ISIL warned in a 2014 video titled End of Sykes-Picot. ISILās leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, in a July 2014 speech at the Great Mosque of al-Nuri in Mosul, vowed that āthis blessed advance will not stop until we hit the last nail in the coffin of the Sykes-Picot conspiracy.ā
Franco-German geographer Christophe Neff wrote that the geopolitical architecture founded by the SykesāPicot Agreement disappeared in July 2014 and with it the relative protection of religious and ethnic minorities in the Middle East. He claimed further that ISIL affected the geopolitical structure of the Middle East in summer 2014, particularly in Syria and Iraq. Former French Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin presented a similar geopolitical analysis in an editorial contribution for the French newspaperĀ Le Monde.
The United Kingdom in the Middle East
During the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the British promised the international Zionist movement their support in recreating the historic Jewish homeland in Palestine via the Balfour declaration, a move that created much political conflict, still present today.
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The original 13 states of the United States were createdĀ through a series of British colonies established in the 17th and 18th centuries:Ā
Jamestown:Ā The first permanent English settlement in North America, founded in 1607 by 104 men and boysĀ
Plymouth:Ā Settled in 1620 by a group of Pilgrims, who were part of a larger Puritan groupĀ
New Hampshire:Ā Settled by English colonists in 1623Ā
New Netherland:Ā Settled by the Dutch in 1624, and later renamed New YorkĀ
Maryland:Ā Established in 1634 by Roman Catholics led by the Calvert familyĀ
Rhode Island:Ā Settled in 1636 by a group led by the minister Roger WilliamsĀ
Delaware:Ā Settled in 1638 by the SwedishĀ
New Jersey:Ā Settled by the Dutch in 1660Ā
The Carolinas:Ā Settled by the English in 1663Ā
Pennsylvania:Ā Established in 1681 by William Penn, an English Quaker leaderĀ
Georgia:Ā Settled in 1733Ā
ļæ¼
The 13 colonies were established by British emigrants, many of whom were escaping religious persecution.Ā The colonies grew in size and number, and by the time of the American Revolution, they stretched from Maine in the north to the Altamaha River in Georgia.Ā
In 1776, the 13 colonies declared their independence from Great Britain, and the American Revolutionary War (1775ā1783) followed.Ā After the British were defeated, the United States was free to create a new government.
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Don't delete this comment us in Europe and America deserved better then play second fiddle to the united nations full of nations including America that owe everything they have to Europe today while Europe has become the mess it has today.
Decolonization of Asia and Africa,Ā 1945ā1960
Between 1945 and 1960, three dozen new states inĀ AsiaĀ andĀ AfricaĀ achieved autonomy or outright independence from their European colonial rulers.
ļæ¼
Harold MacMillan, British Prime Minister, helped begin decolonization
There was no one process of decolonization. In some areas, it was peaceful, and orderly. In many others, independence was achieved only after a protracted revolution. A few newly independent countries acquired stable governments almost immediately; others were ruled by dictators or military juntas for decades, or endured long civil wars. Some European governments welcomed a new relationship with their former colonies; others contested decolonization militarily. The process of decolonization coincided with the new Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, and with the early development of the new United Nations. Decolonization was often affected by superpower competition, and had a definite impact on the evolution of that competition. It also significantly changed the pattern of international relations in a more general sense.
The creation of so many new countries, some of which occupied strategic locations, others of which possessed significant natural resources, and most of which were desperately poor, altered the composition of the United Nations and political complexity of every region of the globe. In the mid to late 19th century, the European powers colonized much of Africa and Southeast Asia. During the decades of imperialism, the industrializing powers of Europe viewed the African and Asian continents as reservoirs of raw materials, labor, and territory for future settlement. In most cases, however, significant development and European settlement in these colonies was sporadic. However, the colonies were exploited, sometimes brutally, for natural and labor resources, and sometimes even for military conscripts. In addition, the introduction of colonial rule drew arbitrary natural boundaries where none had existed before, dividing ethnic and linguistic groups and natural features, and laying the foundation for the creation of numerous states lacking geographic, linguistic, ethnic, or political affinity.
During World War II Japan, itself a significant imperial power, drove the European powers out of Asia. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, local nationalist movements in the former Asian colonies campaigned for independence rather than a return to European colonial rule. In many cases, as in Indonesia and French Indochina, these nationalists had been guerrillas fighting the Japanese after European surrenders, or were former members of colonial military establishments. These independence movements often appealed to the United States Government for support.
While the United States generally supported the concept of national self-determination, it also had strong ties to its European allies, who had imperial claims on their former colonies. The Cold War only served to complicate the U.S. position, as U.S. support for decolonization was offset by American concern over communist expansion and Soviet strategic ambitions in Europe. Several of the NATO allies asserted that their colonial possessions provided them with economic and military strength that would otherwise be lost to the alliance. Nearly all of the United Statesā European allies believed that after their recovery from World War II their colonies would finally provide the combination of raw materials and protected markets for finished goods that would cement the colonies to Europe. Whether or not this was the case, the alternative of allowing the colonies to slip away, perhaps into the United Statesā economic sphere or that of another power, was unappealing to every European government interested in postwar stability. Although the U.S. Government did not force the issue, it encouraged the European imperial powers to negotiate an early withdrawal from their overseas colonies. The United States granted independence to the Philippines in 1946.
However, as the Cold War competition with the Soviet Union came to dominate U.S. foreign policy concerns in the late 1940s and 1950s, the Truman and Eisenhower Administrations grew increasingly concerned that as the European powers lost their colonies or granted them independence, Soviet-supported communist parties might achieve power in the new states. This might serve to shift the international balance of power in favor of the Soviet Union and remove access to economic resources from U.S. allies. Events such as the Indonesian struggle for independence from the Netherlands (1945ā50), the Vietnamese war against France (1945ā54), and the nationalist and professed socialist takeovers of Egypt (1952) and Iran (1951) served to reinforce such fears, even if new governments did not directly link themselves to the Soviet Union. Thus, the United States used aid packages, technical assistance and sometimes even military intervention to encourage newly independent nations in the Third World to adopt governments that aligned with the West. The Soviet Union deployed similar tactics in an effort to encourage new nations to join the communist bloc, and attempted to convince newly decolonized countries that communism was an intrinsically non-imperialist economic and political ideology. Many of the new nations resisted the pressure to be drawn into the Cold War, joined in the ānonaligned movement,ā which formed after the Bandung conference of 1955, and focused on internal development.
The newly independent nations that emerged in the 1950s and the 1960s became an important factor in changing the balance of power within the United Nations. In 1946, there were 35 member states in the United Nations; as the newly independent nations of the āthird worldā joined the organization, by 1970 membership had swelled to 127. These new member states had a few characteristics in common; they were non-white, with developing economies, facing internal problems that were the result of their colonial past, which sometimes put them at odds with European countries and made them suspicious of European-style governmental structures, political ideas, and economic institutions. These countries also became vocal advocates of continuing decolonization, with the result that the UN Assembly was often ahead of the Security Council on issues of self-governance and decolonization. The new nations pushed the UN toward accepting resolutions for independence for colonial states and creating a special committee on colonialism, demonstrating that even though some nations continued to struggle for independence, in the eyes of the international community, the colonial era was ending..
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Ā @mohmedhassan6875Ā
Many Arab nations gained independence from European powers following World War II.Ā These includeĀ Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq, as well as the countries of North Africa like Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, and Egypt, which all gained independence in the years following World War II.Ā
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
Middle East:
Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan gained independence from France and Britain in the late 1940s.Ā Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932.Ā
North Africa:
Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria gained independence from Italy, France, and Britain in the 1950s and 1960s.Ā Egypt gained independence from Britain in 1922.Ā
This period of decolonization in the Arab world was a complex process, influenced by factors like the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, nationalist movements, and the changing geopolitical landscape after World War II.
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Thou shalt not worship false idols" is a commandment from the Bible,Ā Exodus 20:4-6, which states:Ā
"You shall not make for yourself an idol in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below"
"You shall not bow down to them or worship them"
"For I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God"
ļæ¼
The commandment is also known as the Second Commandment against idolatry.Ā It prohibits the creation of idols in the likeness of anything in the heavens, on earth, or in the waters.Ā This is to emphasize God's authority over all creation and to call for exclusive devotion to Him.Ā
The Bible portrays idols in a negative moral light, using terms such as "non-God", "vanity", "iniquity", "wind and confusion", "the dead", and "carcasses".
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The war in Europe began on 23 August 1939, when the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a pact that created a partnership between them in dividing up Poland and the rest of Eastern Europe. Under the terms of this pact, the German Wehrmacht moved into western Poland on 1 September 1939, and the Soviet Red Army moved en masse into eastern Poland sixteen days later.Ā Great Britain, which had signed a bilateral defense treaty with Poland earlier that year, declared war against Germany as required by a secret protocol to the treaty. However, the protocol, as we now know, applied only to defense against Germany, not against any other country. Similarly, France, which also had signed a bilateral defense treaty with Poland that expressly applied only to Germany, declared war against Germany hours after Britain did. But neither the British nor the French government declared war against the Soviet Union. In Britain, where the public did not know about the secret provision to the British-Polish defense accord, the failure to declare war on the USSR was controversial at the time, seeming to give carte blanche to the Soviet Union for its conquests.
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European empires, like the Holy Roman Empire, the Habsburg Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire, largely "disappeared" due to the rise of nationalism and the devastation of World War I, which led to their breakdown into smaller, independent nation-states across the continent;Ā essentially,Ā the empires fractured into various countries as their territories gained independence, leaving no single dominant imperial power in Europe today.Ā
Key points to remember:
World War I as a catalyst:
The First World War significantly weakened the large empires, paving the way for their disintegration and the formation of new nations based on ethnic and political self-determination.Ā
No single empire left:
Currently, no major European empire exists, only independent nation-states.Ā
Legacy of empires:
While the empires are gone, their historical borders and cultural influences remain evident in the current political landscape of Europe.
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The Oslo Accords and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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The invasion of Ukraine reminds us that colonialism does not come in one flavour. In Britain we think of colonialism as the conquest of distant lands and empires as fragmented assortments of foreign territories. Russian colonialism and the Russian empire are different. Rather than sailing to far-off shores, Russia expanded ā east, south, and west ā and absorbed its neighbours.
The Russian model of colonialism by absorption confuses the divide between colonised and colonialists that was so stark in the British and French empires. In some ways Russiaās expansion was less destructive. The transatlantic slave trade and the kind of mass extirpation of indigenous people seen in the Americas have no direct parallels in Russian history. But the recent invasion of Ukraine points to another way of reading Russiaās colonial history. For one of the consequences of absorption is a lack of recognition that any conquest has taken place and, hence, an almost impermeable sense of entitlement. The result is a firm conviction that contiguous lands are not real countries, but mere annexes of Russia. For pro-Putin Russians, it is almost impossible to imagine the military take-over of Ukraine as an invasion; itās more akin to taking back mislaid property.
For Russian ultra-nationalists, Ukraine is still framed by its old imperial label of āLittle Russiaā (and the Ukrainian language is just āLittle Russianā). We might also be reminded of the curious imperial decree from 1863 which banned Ukrainian-language publications on the grounds that āno separate Little Russian language has ever existed, exists, or can existā. Banning something that you claim does not exist might seem unnecessary. It speaks of a combination of defensiveness and dismissiveness.
The diversity of colonial models and, I would argue of forms of racism (Multiracism, Polity Press, 2022), is hard to see and difficult to understand when nearly all our representations of colonialism (and racism) refer to American and Western European models. Universities have a key role in nurturing expertise in the history, politics, and languages of Asia and Africa. Not long ago the idea of globalisation was in the ascendant and āareaā or āregionalā studies went out of fashion. Many were looking forward to a cosmopolitan future when national histories had lost their significance. This agenda now looks like wishful thinking. Today, almost everywhere, nationalism is on the rise. Studying, comparing, and understanding the worldās many stories of colonial power and discrimination has never been more necessary.
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European immigration to the AmericasĀ was one of the largest migratory movements in human history. Between the years 1492 and 1930, more than 60 million Europeans immigrated to theĀ American continent. Between 1492 and 1820, approximately 2.6Ā million Europeans immigrated to the Americas, of whom just under 50% were British, 40% were Spanish or Portuguese, 6% were Swiss or German, and 5% were French.
But it was in the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century that European immigration to the Americas reached its historic peak. Never before in human history have so many people immigrated to another continent. Between 1815 and 1930, 60 million Europeans emigrated, of which 71% went to North America, 21% to Latin America, and 7% to Australia.[1]Ā This mass immigration had as a backdrop economic and social problems in theĀ Old World, allied to structural changes that facilitated the migratory movement between the two continents. British people and Iberians continued to immigrate, but influxes from other parts of Europe, particularly Germany, Italy, Ireland,Ā Austria-Hungary, theĀ Russian EmpireĀ andĀ Scandinavian countriesĀ also became numerous.
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OThe Oslo Accords and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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TheĀ deportation of Koreans in the Soviet UnionĀ (Russian:Ā ŠŠµŠæŠ¾ŃŃŠ°ŃŠøŃ ŠŗŠ¾ŃŠµŠ¹ŃŠµŠ² Š² Š”Š”Š”Š ;Ā Korean:Ā ź³ ė ¤ģøģ ź°ģ ģ“ģ£¼) was theĀ forced transferĀ of nearly 172,000Ā Soviet KoreansĀ (Koryo-saram or Koryoin) from theĀ Russian Far EastĀ to unpopulated areas of theĀ Kazakh SSRĀ and theĀ Uzbek SSRĀ in 1937 by theĀ NKVDĀ on the orders of Soviet leaderĀ Joseph StalinĀ andĀ Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet UnionĀ Vyacheslav Molotov. 124 trains were used to resettle them 6,400Ā km (12,000 miles) toĀ Central Asia. The reason was to stem "the infiltration of Japanese espionage into theĀ Far Eastern Krai", as Koreans were at the time subjects of theĀ Empire of Japan, which was the Soviet Union's rival. However, some historians regard it as part of Stalin's policy of "frontier cleansing". Estimates based on population statistics suggest that between 16,500 and 50,000 deported Koreans died from starvation, exposure, and difficulties adapting to their new environment in exile
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Ā @Demforlife11Ā The history of the lands that became theĀ United StatesĀ began with the arrival ofĀ the first people in the AmericasĀ around 15,000 BC.Ā Numerous indigenous culturesĀ formed. AfterĀ European colonization of North AmericaĀ began in the late 15th century, wars and epidemics decimated indigenous societies. Starting in 1585, theĀ British EmpireĀ colonizedĀ theĀ Atlantic Coast, and by the 1760s, theĀ thirteen British coloniesĀ were established. TheĀ Southern ColoniesĀ built an agricultural system onĀ slave labor,Ā enslaving millions from AfricaĀ for this purpose. AfterĀ defeating France, the BritishĀ ParliamentĀ imposed a series of taxes, including theĀ Stamp Act of 1765, rejecting the colonists' constitutional argument that new taxesĀ needed their approval. Resistance to these taxes, especially theĀ Boston Tea PartyĀ in 1773, led to Parliament issuing theĀ Intolerable ActsĀ designed to end self-government. Armed conflict began in Massachusetts inĀ 1775.
ļæ¼Current territories of the United States after theĀ Trust Territory of the Pacific IslandsĀ was given independence in 1994
In 1776, inĀ Philadelphia, theĀ Second Continental CongressĀ declared the independenceĀ of the colonies as the "United States of America". Led by GeneralĀ George Washington, it won theĀ Revolutionary WarĀ in 1783. TheĀ Treaty of ParisĀ established the borders of the new sovereign state. TheĀ Articles of Confederation, while establishing a central government, was ineffectual at providing stability. AĀ conventionĀ wrote aĀ new ConstitutionĀ that was adopted in 1789, and aĀ Bill of RightsĀ was added in 1791 to guaranteeĀ inalienable rights. Washington, the firstĀ president, and his adviserĀ Alexander HamiltonĀ created a strong central government. TheĀ Louisiana PurchaseĀ in 1803 doubled the size of the country.
Encouraged by available, inexpensive land and the notion ofĀ manifest destiny, the country expanded to theĀ Pacific Coast. After 1830, Indian tribes were forcibly removed to the West. The resulting expansion of slavery was increasingly controversial, and fueled political and constitutional battles which were resolved by compromises. Slavery was abolished in all states north of theĀ MasonāDixon lineĀ by 1804, but it continued in southern states to support their agricultural economy. After the election ofĀ Abraham LincolnĀ as president in 1860, the southern statesĀ secededĀ from the Union to form the pro-slaveryĀ Confederate States of America, and started theĀ Civil War. The Confederates' defeat in 1865 led to theĀ abolition of slavery. In the subsequentĀ Reconstruction era,Ā legal and voting rights were extendedĀ to freed male slaves. The national government emerged much stronger, andĀ gained explicit duty to protect individual rights. White southern Democrats regained their political power in the South in 1877, often using paramilitaryĀ suppression of votingĀ andĀ Jim Crow lawsĀ to maintainĀ white supremacy, as well as newĀ state constitutionsĀ that legalized racial discrimination and prevented mostĀ African AmericansĀ from participating in public life.
The United States became the world's leading industrial power in the 20th century, due to entrepreneurship,Ā industrialization, and theĀ arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers. A national railroad network was completed, and large-scale mines and factories were established. Dissatisfaction with corruption, inefficiency, and traditional politics stimulated theĀ Progressive movement, leading to reforms including theĀ federal income tax, direct election of Senators, citizenship for many indigenous people,Ā alcohol prohibition, andĀ women's suffrage. Initially neutral duringĀ World War I, the United StatesĀ declared war on GermanyĀ in 1917, joining the successfulĀ Allies. After the prosperousĀ Roaring Twenties, theĀ Wall Street Crash of 1929Ā marked the onset of the decade-long worldwideĀ Great Depression. PresidentĀ Franklin D. Roosevelt'sĀ New DealĀ programs, including unemployment relief andĀ social security, definedĀ modern American liberalism.[1]Ā Following theĀ Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States enteredĀ World War IIĀ and financed theĀ AlliedĀ war effort, helping defeatĀ Nazi GermanyĀ andĀ Fascist ItalyĀ in theĀ European theater. In theĀ Pacific War, America defeatedĀ Imperial JapanĀ after usingĀ nuclear weaponsĀ onĀ Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The United States and theĀ Soviet UnionĀ emerged as rivalĀ superpowersĀ in theĀ aftermath of World War II. During theĀ Cold War, the two countries confronted each other indirectly in theĀ arms race, theĀ Space Race, propaganda campaigns, andĀ proxy wars. In the 1960s, in large part due to theĀ civil rights movement, social reforms enforced the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African Americans. In the 1980s,Ā Ronald Reagan's presidency realigned American politics towards reductions in taxes and regulations. The Cold War ended when theĀ Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991, leaving the United States as the world's sole superpower. Foreign policyĀ after the Cold WarĀ has often focused onĀ many conflicts in the Middle East, especially after theĀ September 11 attacks. In the 21st century, the country was negatively affected by theĀ Great RecessionĀ and theĀ COVID-19 pandemic.
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Ā @jonathanpriel5013Ā Since the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, the relative peace of Iraqi Kurdistan has been a notable, if often overlooked, exception to the violent insurgency, sectarian feuding, and pervasive lawlessness that has racked Iraq. Yet this achievement has also made the area of one of Americaās most significant long-term security concerns in the region, as Kurdistanās success as a semi-autonomous nation has increased regional agitation for the creation of a separate nation for the Kurdish people.
The Kurds, a mostly Sunni Muslim people who share a unique language and whose mountainous territory spans Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria, have a long history of oppression, suffering, and fierce armed struggle in these countries. Past Syrian governments have tried to strip Kurds of their Syrian citizenship. Kurds in Iran have faced similar oppression, often regarded with suspicion and hatred as Sunni Muslims in a Shiite state. In Turkey, Kurdish separatist fighters and government efforts to eradicate Kurdish language and culture have claimed untold lives. Saddam Husseinās genocidal war against the Kurds in Iraq, capped by the infamous 1988 gas attacks that killed thousands of civilians, ranks among the worst atrocities of the twentieth century. This tragic legacy makes the question of Kurdish independence a contentious one. Nonetheless, a sovereign Kurdistan seems extraordinarily unlikely. Since all four host nations are extremely resistant to losing territory, the Kurds would be best off publicly committing themselves to their respective countries, advocating for the protection of minority rights, and perhaps pursuing limited local autonomy.
Kurdish Turks, Iraqi Kurds
In Turkey, Kurdish political activism is already engaged; much hangs in the balance of highly contentious upcoming March elections. Recent polls show that many of Turkeyās Kurds are moving towards the Kurdish nationalist Democratic Society Party (DTP). In recent years, growing numbers of Kurds had aligned themselves with the Islam-based, pro-European Union governing party, Ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP). In the past few months, however, Turkeyās Kurds have responded to the DTPās pro-Kurdish rhetoric, while the AKP has foundered due to corruption. Dr. Michael Gunter, author of The Kurds Ascending, believes that the mainstream AKP offers the best chance of integrating the Kurds into the Turkish state, as eventual accession into the European Union would raise human rights standards. The DTPās likely victory at the local polls, Gunter told the HPR, will delay reconciliation between the Kurds and the Turkish authorities.
In Iraq, the Kurdsā relationship with Baghdad is not one of integration. Iraqi Kurdistan, which enjoyed limited autonomy even under Saddam Hussein in the 1990s, became increasingly assertive and independent during the chaos of post-invasion Iraq. Fighting continues between Kurds, Arabs, and Turkmen for control over oil-rich Kirkuk, with the Kurds pressing for Kirkuk to be administered by a Kurdish province. Many commentators speculate that Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri Al-Maliki, after successfully crushing the Shiite militias and consolidating his political power, will turn his attention to bringing Kurdistan more under Baghdadās control. Kurdish Prime Minister Massoud Barzani has asked the Obama Administration to resolve the conflict over Kirkuk before withdrawing troops from Iraq.
Small Steps Forward
The controversy over Kirkuk is indicative of why Kurdistan is unlikely to ever become a reality. Convincing government leaders to surrender territory in a region where conflict so often revolves around land and oil is essentially impossible. āHow do you get nation-states to give up their interests in favor of justice for minority groups? When it comes to giving up territory, it doesnāt work,ā Laura Adams, Harvard professor of sociology, told the HPR. Even if the Kurds were able to secure sovereign land, that territory would be land-locked and in constant danger of invasion. In addition, current political instability in Iraq and Turkey makes the chances of establishing an actual Kurdistan slim at best. āRealistically, given the concerns of various countries (Turkey and Iran in particular) there is little possibility that an independent new nation state named Kurdistan will emerge in the near future,ā commented Christopher Houston, author of Kurdistan, Crafting of National Selves, in an interview with the HPR. Given these realities, the best case scenario moving forward would pair increased respect for Kurdish rights from Iran, Syria, Iraq, and Turkey with a halt to Kurdish activities that destabilize those respective regimes. In a region fraught with conflict, however, these may be audacious hopes.
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Austria wasĀ occupiedĀ by theĀ AlliesĀ and declared independent fromĀ Nazi GermanyĀ on 27 April 1945 (confirmed by theĀ Berlin DeclarationĀ for Germany on 5 June 1945), as a result of theĀ Vienna offensive. The occupation ended when theĀ Austrian State TreatyĀ came into force on 27 July 1955.
After theĀ AnschlussĀ in 1938,Ā AustriaĀ had generally been recognized as part of Nazi Germany. In 1943, however, the Allies agreed in theĀ Declaration of MoscowĀ that Austria would instead be regarded asĀ the first victim of Nazi aggressionāwithout denying Austria's role in Nazi crimesāand treated as a liberated and independent country after the war.
In the immediateĀ aftermath of World War II, Austria was divided into four occupation zones and jointly occupied by theĀ United Kingdom, theĀ Soviet Union, theĀ United States, andĀ France.Ā ViennaĀ was similarly subdivided, but the central district was collectively administered by theĀ Allied Control Council.
Whereas Germany was divided intoĀ EastĀ andĀ West GermanyĀ in 1949, Austria remained under joint occupation of the Western Allies and the Soviet Union until 1955; its status became a controversial subject in theĀ Cold WarĀ until the warming of relations known as theĀ Khrushchev Thaw. After Austrian promises of perpetual neutrality, Austria was accorded full independence on 15 May 1955 and the last occupation troops left on 25 October that year..
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TheĀ aftermath of World War IĀ saw far-reaching and wide-ranging cultural, economic, and social change acrossĀ Europe,Ā Asia,Ā Africa, and even in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries were abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries were redrawn, international organizations were established, and many new and old ideologies took a firm hold in people's minds. Additionally, culture in the nations involved was greatly changed.Ā World War IĀ also had the effect of bringing political transformation to most of the principal parties involved in the conflict, transforming them intoĀ electoral democraciesĀ by bringing near-universal suffrageĀ for the first time in history, as in Germany (1919 German federal election), Great Britain (1918 United Kingdom general election), and Turkey (1923 Turkish general election).[citation needed]
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The Oslo Accords and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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Ā @JohnnyMnemonic-r5nĀ With the gradual urbanization of Society in the late 19th century, Ukrainian migrants from rural areas who settled in the cities entered a Russian-speaking milieu. With all State educational instruction and cultural establishments using Russian many Ukrainians were forced to use the Russian language.
TheĀ Russian governmentĀ promoted the spread of the Russian language among the native Ukrainian population by actively suppressing the Ukrainian language. Alarmed by the threat of Ukrainian separatism implied by a growing number of school textbooks teaching the Ukrainian language, the Russian Minister of Internal AffairsĀ Pyotr ValuevĀ in 1863 issued aĀ circularĀ that banned the publication of religious texts and educational texts written in the Ukrainian language.[6]Ā This ban was expanded by Tsar Alexander II who issued theĀ Ems UkazĀ in 1876. All Ukrainian language books and song lyrics were banned, as was the importation of such works. Furthermore, Ukrainian-language public performances, plays, and lectures were forbidden.[7]Ā In 1881, the decree was amended to allow the publishing of lyrics and dictionaries, and the performances of some plays in the Ukrainian language with local officials' approval. Ukrainian-only troupes were forbidden.
While officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union, Russian was in practice in a privileged position. The Ukrainian language was often frowned upon or quietly discouraged, which led to the gradual decline in its usage.[citation needed]
In independent Ukraine, although Russian is not an official language of the country, it continues to hold a privileged position and is widely spoken, in particular in regions of Ukraine where Soviet Russification policies were the strongest, notably most of the urban areas of the east and south.
In 1994 a referendum took place in theĀ Donetsk OblastĀ and theĀ Luhansk Oblast, with around 40% supporting theĀ Russian languageĀ gaining status of an official language alongsideĀ Ukrainian, and for theĀ Russian languageĀ to be an official language on a regional level; however, the referendum was annulled by theĀ KyivĀ government.[8]
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Ā @iBuyBitcoinĀ this is what we want back including d.c.
There were 13 original states. Name three.
The 13 original states were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The 13 original states were the first 13 BritishĀ colonies. BritishĀ colonistsĀ traveled across the Atlantic Ocean from Europe. They came to the East Coast of the United States. They foundedĀ coloniesĀ there. Massachusetts is an original state. In 1620, BritishĀ colonistsĀ landed in Massachusetts. TheseĀ colonistsĀ wanted freedom to practice their religion. Virginia is an original state. BritishĀ colonistsĀ founded Virginia in 1607.Ā ColonistsĀ in Virginia grew tobacco on large farms. New York is an original state. The area that is now New York used to be called New Amsterdam. It became the BritishĀ colonyĀ of New York in 1664. Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York are three of the 13 original states.
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Ā @iBuyBitcoinĀ we fought blood and tears in Europe over America we didn't colonise new York first the Dutch did .
New AmsterdamĀ (Dutch:Ā Nieuw Amsterdam,Ā pronouncedĀ [Ėniu.ÉmstÉrĖdÉm]) was a 17th-centuryĀ Dutch settlementĀ established at the southern tip ofĀ ManhattanĀ Island that served as the seat of the colonial government inĀ New Netherland. The initial tradingĀ factoryĀ gave rise to the settlement aroundĀ Fort Amsterdam. The fort was situated on the strategic southern tip of the island of Manhattan and was meant to defend theĀ fur tradeĀ operations of theĀ Dutch West India CompanyĀ in the North River (Hudson River). In 1624, it became a provincial extension of theĀ Dutch RepublicĀ and was designated as the capital of the province in 1625. New Amsterdam became a city when it receivedĀ municipal rightsĀ on February 2, 1653.[3]
By 1655, the population of New Netherland had grown to 2,000 people, with 1,500 living in New Amsterdam. By 1664, the population of New Netherland had risen to almost 9,000 people, 2,500 of whom lived in New Amsterdam, 1,000 lived nearĀ Fort Orange, and the remainder in other towns and villages.[2][4]
In 1664, the English took over New Amsterdam and renamed itĀ New YorkĀ after the Duke of York (laterĀ James II & VII).[5]Ā After theĀ Second Anglo-Dutch WarĀ of 1665ā67, England and theĀ United Provinces of the NetherlandsĀ agreed to the status quo in theĀ Treaty of Breda. The English kept the island of Manhattan, the Dutch giving up their claim to the town and the rest of the colony, while the English formally abandonedĀ SurinamĀ in South America, and the island ofĀ RunĀ in theĀ East IndiesĀ to the Dutch, confirming their control of the valuableĀ Spice Islands. The area occupied by New Amsterdam is nowĀ Lower Manhattan.
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Ā @PhilipBrandt1973Ā invest in Yemen
Invest in Yemen
Yemen is an open economy that welcomes foreign direct investment in all sectors. Its well-qualified workforce and strategic position in the south of the Arabian Peninsula make it an attractive place for investment. There are a number of investment opportunities that exist in Yemen.
Yemen enjoys a number of natural advantages to attract investments, particularlyĀ in the tourismĀ sector.Ā Yemenās varied topography, with beautiful landscapes and diverse climates from the coastal mountains to the interior desert, make it a promising place for tourism investment, especially when one is aware of the fact that the country is an untapped marketĀ and is diversifying into a broad spectrum of economic activities.
Attractive investment opportunities also exist in other sectors in Yemen, from petroleumĀ and miningĀ to agricultureĀ and the manufacturingĀ sector.Ā To advance economic diversification and develop public and private investment in strategic sectors, the government has identified various investment opportunities andĀ implementation objectivesĀ to make them accessible to Yemeni, Arab, and foreign investors at the local and international levels.
Whether you are considering establishing your own Yemeni operation, working with a Yemeni partner, or gaining a Yemeni base for access to the Gulf markets, Yemen isĀ a low-cost, competitive place to do business. We encourage you to doĀ additional research into the Yemeni economy and see for yourself the progress and potential of the country.
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Ā @thepoliticalhousethatjackbuiltĀ TheĀ European UnionĀ (EU) is not legally (de jure) a federation, although various academics have argued that it contains some federal characteristics. About how various scholars approach the issue,Ā R. Daniel KelemenĀ ofĀ Rutgers UniversityĀ said: "Unencumbered by the prejudice that the EU isĀ sui generisĀ and incomparable, federalism scholars now regularly treat the EU as a case in their comparative studies (Friedman-Goldstein, 2001; Filippov, Ordeshook, Shevtsova, 2004; Roden, 2005; Bednar, 2006). For the purposes of the present analysis, the EU has the necessary minimal attributes of a federal system and crucially the EU is riven with many of the same tensions that afflict federal systems."
A federation like Russia a union like America is the same thing they debate if the European union is or not today but Europe itself is not the same as 30 years ago these problems should hand beem sorted then
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Ā @IntriguedLionessĀ this is where it all went wrong for America
Make America and Canada great again
The Thirteen Colonies in their traditional groupings were: theĀ New England ColoniesĀ (New Hampshire,Ā Massachusetts,Ā Rhode Island, andĀ Connecticut); theĀ Middle ColoniesĀ (New York,Ā New Jersey,Ā Pennsylvania, andĀ Delaware); and theĀ Southern ColoniesĀ (Maryland,Ā Virginia,Ā North Carolina,Ā South Carolina, andĀ Georgia).[2]Ā These colonies were part ofĀ British America, which also included territory inĀ The Floridas, theĀ Caribbean, and what is todayĀ Canada.[3]
The Thirteen Colonies had similar political, constitutional, and legal systems, and each was largely dominated byĀ ProtestantĀ English-speakers. The first of the colonies, Virginia, was established atĀ Jamestown, in 1607. The New England Colonies, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, were substantially motivated by their founders' concerns related to the practice of religion. The other colonies were founded for business and economic expansion. The Middle Colonies were established on the former Dutch colony ofĀ New Netherland.
Between 1625 and 1775, the colonial population grew from 2 thousand to 2.4Ā million, largely displacing the region'sĀ Native Americans. The population included people subject to a system ofĀ slavery, which was legal in all of the colonies. In the 18th century, the British government operated under a policy ofĀ mercantilism, in which the central government administered its colonies for Britain's economic benefit.
The 13 colonies had a degree ofĀ self-governance and active local elections,[a]Ā and they resisted London's demands for more control over them. TheĀ French and Indian WarĀ (1754ā1763) against France and its Indian allies led to growing tensions between Britain and the 13 colonies. During the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with one another instead of dealing directly with Britain. With the help ofĀ colonial printers and newspapers, these inter-colonial activities and concerns were shared and led to calls for protection of the colonists' "Rights as Englishmen", especially the principle of "no taxation without representation".
Conflicts with the British government over taxes and rights led to theĀ American Revolution, in which the colonies worked together to form theĀ Continental CongressĀ and raised theĀ Continental Army. They fought theĀ American Revolutionary WarĀ (1775ā1783) withĀ the aid of the Kingdom of FranceĀ and, to a much lesser degree, theĀ Dutch RepublicĀ and theĀ Kingdom of Spain.[6]
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In 1993, the Oslo Accords were signed, but they didn't lead to a lasting peace in Palestine.Ā While the accords aimed to establish an interim framework for self-government, they ultimately fell short of a comprehensive resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.Ā Several factors contributed to this failure, including:Ā
1. Lack of a Clear Two-State Solution: The accords didn't explicitly define the goal of a two-state solution, leaving room for ambiguity about the future status of Palestine.Ā
2. Power Imbalance and US Intervention: The negotiation framework favored Israel, a powerful, nuclear-armed nation, over stateless Palestinians under occupation.Ā The U.S., a major backer of Israel, also failed to act as a neutral mediator.Ā
3. Israeli Expansion of Settlements: Israel continued to expand settlements in the West Bank, undermining any progress toward a land-based peace agreement and creating "facts on the ground".Ā
4. Violent Opposition: Right-wing Israeli extremists, who opposed any negotiations with the Palestinians, further undermined the peace process with acts of violence, including the assassination of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.Ā
5. Internal Palestinian Divisions: Groups like Hamas opposed the Oslo Accords and engaged in attacks against Israelis, further hindering the peace process.Ā
6. Lack of Regional Consensus: There wasn't a clear Arab consensus on linking regional issues like security and economics to the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations, allowing Israel to potentially gain what it wanted without making significant concessions.Ā
7. Failure to Address Key Issues: The accords failed to address critical issues like the status of East Jerusalem, the right of return for Palestinian refugees, and the ongoing issue of Palestinian sovereignty, leading to the continuation of the conflict.
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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The settlement ofĀ Las Vegas, Nevada was founded in 1905 after the opening of aĀ railroad that linked Los Angeles and Salt Lake City. The stopover attracted some farmers (mostly from Utah) to the area, and fresh water was piped in to the settlement. In 1911, the town was incorporated as part of the newly founded Clark County. Urbanization took off in 1931 when work started on the Boulder Dam (now theĀ Hoover Dam), bringing a huge influx of young male workers, for whom theaters andĀ casinosĀ were built, largely by theĀ Mafia. Electricity from the dam also enabled the building of many new hotels along the Strip. The arrival ofĀ Howard HughesĀ in 1966 did much to offset mob influence and helped turn Las Vegas into more of a family tourist center, now classified as a Mega resort.
The name Las VegasāSpanish for āthe meadowsāāwas given to the area in 1829 by Rafael Rivera, a member of the Spanish explorerĀ Antonio ArmijoĀ trading party that was traveling toĀ Los Angeles, and stopped for water there on theĀ Old Spanish TrailĀ fromĀ New Mexico. At that time, several parts of the valley containedĀ artesian wellsĀ surrounded by extensive green areas. The flows from the wells fed theĀ Las Vegas Wash, which runs to theĀ Colorado River.
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InĀ Irish mythology,Ā Scottish mythology, and pseudo-history, an Egyptian princess namedĀ ScotaĀ is mentioned as having arrived in today'sĀ ScotlandĀ (and/or inĀ Ireland) in a very early period of these countries' history. The historical veracity of the story is greatly doubted, however. And under theĀ Roman Empire, Britannia and Egypt were two provinces of a single empire which had considerable trade and interaction between its constituent parts. However, if any Egyptians settled inĀ Roman Britain, there was little evidence left of their presence.
Egyptians historically have been averse to emigrating from their country, even when suffering with significant poverty. As such, prior to the late 1960s, only small numbers of Egyptians moved to the United Kingdom, and even then mostly for the purposes of study. As theĀ Egyptian RevolutionĀ that began in 1952 developed an increasinglyĀ socialistĀ character underĀ Gamal Abdel Nasser, with theĀ nationalisationĀ of many private businesses, some upper and middle class Egyptians sought to leave the country. However, large scale emigration did not occur until after Egypt's defeat in theĀ Six-Day WarĀ of 1967, which left theĀ Sinai PeninsulaĀ entirely underĀ Israeli occupation, and placed an immense economic burden on the country.
Given the severity of the country's economic woes following the war, particularly after the outbreak of theĀ War of Attrition, the Egyptian Government saw advantages in Egyptians moving overseas to work and send homeĀ remittances. Therefore, it partially relaxed the strict regulations against emigration (which included requirements for exit visas). This change in approach was extended under Nasser's successor asĀ President of Egypt,Ā Anwar El-Sadat. Over the course of the 1970s and 80s, many Egyptians took advantage of the loosening of these restrictions, and moved to Western states, such as the United Kingdom, and the oil rich states of theĀ Persian Gulf.
Over the same period, heightened religious tension in Egypt resulted in further emigration, largely ofĀ Copts, although the numbers emigrating to the U.K. were small compared toĀ Canada, andĀ Australia. With Egypt's economic liberalisation under Sadat in the 1970s, labour migration to the U.K. increased, as did the flow of Egyptians moving to the U.K. for higher education. Many students stayed in Britain after finishing their studies. During this time, many Egyptian businessmen migrated to the U.K. to establish businesses.[1]
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Germany, Germany above all,
Above all in the world,
When it always stands united
Brotherly in protection and defense.
From theĀ MeuseĀ to theĀ Memel,
From theĀ AdigeĀ to theĀ Little Belt,
š Germany, Germany above all,
Above all in the world! š
German women, German loyalty,
German wine and German song
Shall retain in the world
Their old, beautiful sound,
Inspiring us to noble deeds
Throughout our entire lives ā
š German women, German loyalty,
German wine and German song! š
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The German Templer colonies in Palestine, established by members of the Temple Society,Ā ultimately faced expulsion and confiscation of their properties.Ā Following World War I, the Templers, viewed as enemy aliens, were interned and deported to Australia.Ā After the war, some were allowed to return, but the British Mandate authorities later seized their properties and livestock.Ā
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
Early Years:
The Templer community, primarily a group of German Christians with messianic ideals, arrived in Palestine in the 19th century and established settlements.Ā They initially focused on farming, introducing modern techniques and innovations.Ā
World War I and After:
With the outbreak of World War I, the Templers were classified as enemy aliens.Ā Many were sent to internment camps in Egypt, and their property was seized.Ā
Deportation and Rebuilding:
Some Templers were later allowed to return and rebuild their settlements.Ā However, the British Mandate authorities continued to confiscate their property.Ā
Deportation to Australia:
In 1941, a large number of Templers were deported to Australia, leaving behind a small number in Palestine.Ā
State Property:
After the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, the remnants of the Templer settlements were largely taken over as state property.Ā
Compensation and Restitution:
The Mandate government and the Public Custodian of Enemy Property paid the Templers 50% restitution for war losses of livestock and other property.Ā
Current Status:
The German Colony in Jerusalem, for example, has become a gentrified neighborhood with a large English-speaking population.
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Ā @prajvalrao4871Ā English, in various dialects, is the most widely spokenĀ languageĀ of theĀ United Kingdom,[13]Ā but a number of regional and migrant languages are also spoken. Regional indigenous languages areĀ ScotsĀ andĀ Ulster ScotsĀ and theĀ Celtic languages,Ā Irish,Ā Scottish Gaelic,Ā WelshĀ and, as a revived language with few speakers,Ā Cornish.Ā British Sign LanguageĀ is also used. There are also many languages spoken by immigrants who arrived recently to the United Kingdom, mainly within inner city areas; these languages are mainly fromĀ continental EuropeĀ andĀ South Asia.[14]
TheĀ de factoĀ official languageĀ of the United Kingdom is English.[15]Ā Additionally, Welsh is an official language, under theĀ Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011, inĀ Wales.[16][17]Ā Welsh is spoken by 538,300 people in Wales according to theĀ 2021 census.[18]Ā Approximately 124,000 people speakĀ IrishĀ inĀ Northern Ireland, which is an official language in Northern Ireland alongside English.[19]
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Ā @nlwilson4892Ā The history of urbanization isĀ the process of humans moving from rural to urban settings.Ā It began thousands of years ago, and has accelerated over time.Ā
Early urbanization
Neolithic Period:Ā Humans began to form small, permanent settlements around 10,000 BCE.Ā
Hunter-gatherer villages:Ā Hunter-gatherers began to accumulate into villages, which were characterized by communal behavior and intimate relationships.Ā
Urbanization in the Industrial Revolution
Britain
Urbanization accelerated in Britain during the Industrial Revolution, as the country transitioned from an organic to a fossil fuel economy.Ā
Marriage
Marriage patterns shifted to be more sociable, with people tending to marry someone from the same social group, geographical location, or job.Ā
Urbanization in the modern era
Population explosion
The population explosion of the last three centuries has led to a sustained increase in urbanization.Ā
Urban planning
Urban planning has evolved over time, with planners using modernism to create efficient urban designs.Ā
Factors that affect urbanizationĀ
Agricultural productivity:Ā The productivity of agriculture affects urbanization levels.Ā When agriculture is low-yielding and requires a lot of labor, people are more likely to live in rural areas.
Urban death rates:Ā Urban death rates have also limited urbanization levels in the past.
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During theĀ interwar period, deep anger arose in theĀ Weimar RepublicĀ over the conditions of the 1919Ā Treaty of Versailles, which punished Germany forĀ its roleĀ inĀ World War IĀ with heavy financialĀ reparationsĀ and severe limitations on its military that were intended to prevent it from becoming a military power again. TheĀ demilitarisationĀ of theĀ Rhineland, the prohibition of German unification withĀ Austria, and the loss of its overseas colonies as well as some 12% of its pre-war land area and population all provoked strong currents ofĀ revanchismĀ in German politics.
During the worldwide economic crisis of theĀ Great DepressionĀ in the 1930s, many people lost faith in liberal democracy and countries across the world turned to authoritarian regimes.[1]Ā In Germany, resentment over the terms of the Treaty of Versailles was intensified by the instability of the German political system, as many on both the Right and the Left rejected the Weimar Republic liberalism. The most extreme political aspirant to emerge from that situation wasĀ Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazi Party. The NazisĀ took totalitarian power in GermanyĀ from 1933 and demanded the undoing of the Versailles provisions. Their ambitious and aggressive domestic and foreign policies reflected their ideologies ofĀ antisemitism,Ā unification of all Germans, the acquisition of "living space" (Lebensraum) for agrarian settlers, the elimination ofĀ BolshevismĀ and the hegemony of an "Aryan"/"Nordic"Ā master raceĀ over "subhumans" (Untermenschen) such asĀ JewsĀ andĀ Slavs. Other factors leading to the war included the aggression byĀ Fascist ItalyĀ against Ethiopia, militarism inĀ Imperial JapanĀ againstĀ China, andĀ Military occupations by the Soviet Union.
At first, the aggressive moves met with only feeble and ineffectual policies ofĀ appeasementĀ from the other major world powers. TheĀ League of NationsĀ proved helpless, especially regarding China and Ethiopia. A decisive proximate event was the 1938Ā Munich Conference, which formally approved Germany's annexation of theĀ SudetenlandĀ from Czechoslovakia. Hitler promised it was his last territorial claim, nevertheless in early 1939, he became even more aggressive, and European governments finally realised that appeasement would not guarantee peace but by then it was too late.
Britain and France rejected diplomatic efforts to form a military alliance with the Soviet Union, and Hitler instead offered Stalin a better deal in the MolotovāRibbentrop Pact of August 1939. An alliance formed by Germany, Italy, and Japan led to the establishment of theĀ Axis powers.
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Aftermath of World War II
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Talk
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Edit
TheĀ aftermath of World War IIĀ saw the rise of twoĀ superpowers, theĀ Soviet UnionĀ (USSR) and theĀ United StatesĀ (US). The aftermath ofĀ World War IIĀ was also defined by the rising threat ofĀ nuclear warfare, the creation and implementation of theĀ United NationsĀ as anĀ intergovernmental organization, and theĀ decolonizationĀ ofĀ Asia,Ā Oceania,Ā South AmericaĀ andĀ AfricaĀ byĀ EuropeanĀ andĀ East AsianĀ powers, most notably by theĀ United Kingdom,Ā France, andĀ Japan.
OnceĀ allies during World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became competitors on the world stage and engaged in theĀ Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers. It was instead characterized byĀ espionage,Ā political subversionĀ andĀ proxy wars.Ā Western EuropeĀ and Asia were rebuilt through the AmericanĀ Marshall Plan, whereasĀ Central and Eastern EuropeĀ fell under theĀ Soviet sphere of influenceĀ and eventually behind an "Iron Curtain". Europe was divided into a US-ledĀ Western BlocĀ and a USSR-ledĀ Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through theĀ Non-Aligned Movement. The war also saw aĀ nuclear arms raceĀ between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to aĀ mutually assured destructionĀ standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created theĀ United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to theĀ League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlawĀ wars of aggressionĀ in an attempt to avoid aĀ third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed theĀ European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into theĀ European Economic CommunityĀ and ultimately into the currentĀ European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war betweenĀ GermanyĀ andĀ FranceĀ by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war opened the way for decolonization from the great powers. Independence was granted toĀ IndiaĀ andĀ PakistanĀ (from the United Kingdom),Ā IndonesiaĀ (from theĀ Netherlands), theĀ PhilippinesĀ (from the US) and a number ofĀ Arab nations, from specific mandates which had been granted to great powers fromĀ League of Nations MandatesĀ and in addition to the establishment ofĀ IsraelĀ (from the United Kingdom). Independence for the nations ofĀ Sub-Saharan AfricaĀ came in the 1960s.
The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of communist influence in East Asia, with theĀ People's Republic of China, as theĀ Chinese Communist PartyĀ emergedĀ victoriousĀ from theĀ Chinese Civil WarĀ in 1949.
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Let this stand to these cretins don't know how to deal with the past here we are all to different in Europe for the European union.
Aftermath of World War II
Article
Ā
Talk
Language
Watch
Edit
TheĀ aftermath of World War IIĀ saw the rise of twoĀ superpowers, theĀ Soviet UnionĀ (USSR) and theĀ United StatesĀ (US). The aftermath ofĀ World War IIĀ was also defined by the rising threat ofĀ nuclear warfare, the creation and implementation of theĀ United NationsĀ as anĀ intergovernmental organization, and theĀ decolonizationĀ ofĀ Asia,Ā Oceania,Ā South AmericaĀ andĀ AfricaĀ byĀ EuropeanĀ andĀ East AsianĀ powers, most notably by theĀ United Kingdom,Ā France, andĀ Japan.
OnceĀ allies during World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became competitors on the world stage and engaged in theĀ Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers. It was instead characterized byĀ espionage,Ā political subversionĀ andĀ proxy wars.Ā Western EuropeĀ and Asia were rebuilt through the AmericanĀ Marshall Plan, whereasĀ Central and Eastern EuropeĀ fell under theĀ Soviet sphere of influenceĀ and eventually behind an "Iron Curtain". Europe was divided into a US-ledĀ Western BlocĀ and a USSR-ledĀ Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through theĀ Non-Aligned Movement. The war also saw aĀ nuclear arms raceĀ between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to aĀ mutually assured destructionĀ standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created theĀ United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to theĀ League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlawĀ wars of aggressionĀ in an attempt to avoid aĀ third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed theĀ European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into theĀ European Economic CommunityĀ and ultimately into the currentĀ European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war betweenĀ GermanyĀ andĀ FranceĀ by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war opened the way for decolonization from the great powers. Independence was granted toĀ IndiaĀ andĀ PakistanĀ (from the United Kingdom),Ā IndonesiaĀ (from theĀ Netherlands), theĀ PhilippinesĀ (from the US) and a number ofĀ Arab nations, from specific mandates which had been granted to great powers fromĀ League of Nations MandatesĀ and in addition to the establishment ofĀ IsraelĀ (from the United Kingdom). Independence for the nations ofĀ Sub-Saharan AfricaĀ came in the 1960s.
The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of communist influence in East Asia, with theĀ People's Republic of China, as theĀ Chinese Communist PartyĀ emergedĀ victoriousĀ from theĀ Chinese Civil WarĀ in 1949.
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IranāIsrael proxy conflict
Article
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Talk
Im starting to think the world was a better place when rhe empires of europe existed and when we had control of the middle east after ww1 rhen given the world independence from us today
ššš
TheĀ IranāIsrael proxy conflict, also known as theĀ IranāIsrael proxy war[24]Ā orĀ IranāIsrael Cold War,[25]Ā is an ongoingĀ proxy conflictĀ betweenĀ IranĀ andĀ Israel. In theĀ IsraeliāLebanese conflict, Iran has supported LebaneseĀ ShiaĀ militias, most notablyĀ Hezbollah. In theĀ Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Iran has backed Palestinian groups such asĀ Hamas. Israel has supported Iranian rebels, such as theĀ People's Mujahedin of Iran, conducted airstrikesĀ against Iranian allies in SyriaĀ andĀ assassinated Iranian nuclear scientists. In 2018Ā Israeli forces directly attacked Iranian forcesĀ in Syria.[26]
Various reasons have been given for the Iran-Israel conflict. Iran and Israel had previously enjoyed warm ties due to common threats, but by 1990sĀ the USSR had dissolvedĀ andĀ Iraq had been weakened.[29]Ā Iranian Islamists have long championed theĀ Palestinian people, whom they perceive as oppressed.[30]Ā Scholars believe that by supporting the Palestinians, Iran seeks greater acceptance among Sunnis and Arabs, both of whom dominate the Middle East.[31][32]Ā Ideologically, Iran seeks to replace Israel with aĀ one-state solutionĀ (though Iran has at times also supported theĀ two-state solution[33]) and has predicted Israel's demise.[34]Ā Israel sees Iran as an existential threat,[35]Ā and accuses its regime of harboring genocidal intentions.[36]Ā Consequently, Israel has sought sanctions andĀ military action against IranĀ to stop it from acquiring nuclear weapons.[37]
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Decolonisation of the Middle-East
NameĀ Date of Independence
Colonising Power
IraqOctober 3, 1932Great BritainLebanonIndependence declared on November 22, 1943. Full Independence granted in 1946FranceSyriaNovember 30, 1943. Full Independence granted in 1945FranceIsraelMay 14, 1948Great BritainCyprusAugust 16, 1960Great BritainKuwaitJune 19, 1961Great BritainOman1962Great BritainYemenNovember 30, 1967Great BritainQatarSeptember 3, 1971Great BritainBahrainAugust 15, 1971Great BritainUnited Arab EmiratesDecember 2, 1971Great Britain
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We want this addressed to because 100 years on what the middle east is today is all because of this and it effects us Brits today but we never let the Arab nations down Britain and France and there is only two sets of problems in Palestine today not every Arab Muslim Christian is the same even in the UK now they will know there histories with us .
liaison role during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign and the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. The breadth and variety of his activities and associations, and his ability to describe them vividly in writing, earned him international fame as Lawrence of Arabiaāa title used for the 1962 film based on his wartime activities.
The Sykes-Picot Agreement, officially known as the Asia Minor Agreement, was a secret 1916 agreement between Great Britain and France, to which the Russian Empire assented. The agreement defined their mutually agreed spheres of influence and control in Southwestern Asia. The agreement was based on the premise that the Triple Entente would succeed in defeating the Ottoman Empire during World War I. The negotiations leading to the agreement occurred between November 1915 and March 1916, Ā and it was signed May 16, 1916. The deal was exposed to the public in 1917. The agreement is still mentioned when considering the region and its present-day conflicts.
The agreement allocated to Britain control of areas roughly comprising the coastal strip between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan, Jordan, southern Iraq, and an additional small area that included the ports of Haifa and Acre, to allow access to the Mediterranean. France got control of southeastern Turkey, northern Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon. Russia received Istanbul, the Turkish Straits and Armenia. The controlling powers were left free to determine state boundaries within their areas. Further negotiation was expected to determine international administration pending consultations with Russia and other powers, including Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca.
Given Ottoman defeat in 1918 and the subsequent partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the agreement effectively divided the Ottoman Arab provinces outside the Arabian peninsula into areas of British and French control and influence. An international administration was proposed for Palestine as part of the Acre-Haifa zone, intended to be an British enclave in northern Palestine to enable access to the Mediterranean. The British gained control of the territory in 1920 and ruled it as Mandatory Palestine from 1923 until 1948. They also ruled Mandatory Iraq from 1920 until 1932, while the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon lasted from 1923 to 1946.
The terms were negotiated by British diplomat Mark Sykes and a French counterpart, FranƧois Georges-Picot. The Tsarist government was a minor party to the Sykes-Picot agreement; when the Bolsheviks published the agreement on November 23, 1917, after the Russian Revolution, āthe British were embarrassed, the Arabs dismayed and the Turks delighted.ā
The agreement is seen by many as a turning point in Western and Arab relations. It negated the UKās promises to Arabs made through Colonel T. E. Lawrence for a national Arab homeland in the area of Greater Syria in exchange for supporting the British against the Ottoman Empire.
ļæ¼
Sykes-Picot Agreement:Ā Map of Sykes-Picot Agreement showing Eastern Turkey in Asia, Syria, and Western Persia, and areas of control and influence agreed between the British and the French. It was an enclosure in Paul Cambonās letter to Sir Edward Grey, May 9, 1916.
Consequences
Leading up to the centenary of Sykes-Picot in 2016, great interest was generated among the media and academia in the long-term effects of the agreement. It is frequently cited as having created āartificialā borders in the Middle East, āwithout any regard to ethnic or sectarian characteristics, [which] has resulted in endless conflict.ā The extent to which Sykes-Picot actually shaped the borders of the modern Middle East is disputed, and scholars often attribute instability in the region to other factors.
The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) claims one of the goals of its insurgency is to reverse the effects of the SykesāPicot Agreement. āThis is not the first border we will break, we will break other borders,ā a jihadist from the ISIL warned in a 2014 video titled End of Sykes-Picot. ISILās leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, in a July 2014 speech at the Great Mosque of al-Nuri in Mosul, vowed that āthis blessed advance will not stop until we hit the last nail in the coffin of the Sykes-Picot conspiracy.ā
Franco-German geographer Christophe Neff wrote that the geopolitical architecture founded by the SykesāPicot Agreement disappeared in July 2014 and with it the relative protection of religious and ethnic minorities in the Middle East. He claimed further that ISIL affected the geopolitical structure of the Middle East in summer 2014, particularly in Syria and Iraq. Former French Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin presented a similar geopolitical analysis in an editorial contribution for the French newspaperĀ Le Monde.
The United Kingdom in the Middle East
During the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the British promised the international Zionist movement their support in recreating the historic Jewish homeland in Palestine via the Balfour declaration, a move that created much political conflict, still present today.
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Ā @homelandyDKĀ TheĀ early modern periodĀ is aĀ historical periodĀ that is part of, or (depending on theĀ historian) immediately preceded, theĀ modern period, with divisions based primarily on theĀ history of EuropeĀ and the broader concept ofĀ modernity. There is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on the area of history being studied. In general, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from around the start of the 16th century to the start of the 19th century (about 1500ā1800). In a European context, it is defined as the period following theĀ Middle AgesĀ and preceding the advent of modernity; but the dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed. In the context ofĀ global history, the early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent "medieval" period.
Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period, including theĀ fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start of theĀ Renaissance, the end of theĀ Crusades, theĀ ReformationĀ inĀ GermanyĀ giving rise toĀ ProtestantismĀ and the beginning of theĀ Age of DiscoveryĀ and with it the onset of theĀ first wave of European colonization. Its end is often marked by theĀ French Revolution, and sometimes also theĀ American RevolutionĀ orĀ Napoleon'sĀ rise to power,[1][2]Ā with the advent of the second wave modern colonization ofĀ New Imperialism.
Historians in recent decades have argued that, from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was itsĀ spreading globalizingĀ character.[3]Ā New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance ofĀ mercantilismĀ as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development ofĀ experimental science, increasingly rapidĀ technological progress,Ā secularizedĀ civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence ofĀ nation states.
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TheĀ early modern periodĀ is aĀ historical periodĀ that is part of, or (depending on theĀ historian) immediately preceded, theĀ modern period, with divisions based primarily on theĀ history of EuropeĀ and the broader concept ofĀ modernity. There is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on the area of history being studied. In general, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from around the start of the 16th century to the start of the 19th century (about 1500ā1800). In a European context, it is defined as the period following theĀ Middle AgesĀ and preceding the advent of modernity; but the dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed. In the context ofĀ global history, the early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent "medieval" period.
Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period, including theĀ fall of Constantinople in 1453, the start of theĀ Renaissance, the end of theĀ Crusades, theĀ ReformationĀ inĀ GermanyĀ giving rise toĀ ProtestantismĀ and the beginning of theĀ Age of DiscoveryĀ and with it the onset of theĀ first wave of European colonization. Its end is often marked by theĀ French Revolution, and sometimes also theĀ American RevolutionĀ orĀ Napoleon'sĀ rise to power,[1][2]Ā with the advent of the second wave modern colonization ofĀ New Imperialism.
Historians in recent decades have argued that, from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was itsĀ spreading globalizingĀ character.[3]Ā New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance ofĀ mercantilismĀ as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development ofĀ experimental science, increasingly rapidĀ technological progress,Ā secularizedĀ civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence ofĀ nation states.
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Ā @_I02_Ā not everyone in the world was against the British or the British empire and colonies where European wherever they where the middle east is different and that effected Europe without the triple entete beating the German empire and the ottoman empire and central European empires after ww1 Partioning it Europe and the middle east would be nothing like it is today. Trouble is with Europe that ended 30 years ago and the problems in Palestine should have ended 30 years ago ( Israel and Palestine should have had peace in 1993) this is why we are doing this now.
The UK is home to the largest Pakistani community inĀ Europe, with the population of British Pakistanis exceeding 1.6 million based on the 2021 Census. British Pakistanis are the second-largestĀ ethnic minority population in the United KingdomĀ and also make up the second-largest sub-group ofĀ British Asians. In addition, they are one of the largestĀ Overseas PakistaniĀ communities, similar in number to theĀ Pakistani diaspora in the UAE.[6][7]
Due to theĀ historical relationsĀ between the two countries, immigration to the UK from the region, which is now Pakistan, began in small numbers in the mid-nineteenth century when parts of what is now Pakistan came under theĀ British India. People from those regions served as soldiers in theĀ British Indian ArmyĀ and some were deployed to other parts of theĀ British Empire. However, it was following theĀ Second World WarĀ and the break-up of the British Empire and theĀ independenceĀ ofĀ PakistanĀ that Pakistani immigration to the United Kingdom increased, especially during the 1950s and 1960s. This was made easier as Pakistan was a member of theĀ Commonwealth.[8]Ā Pakistani immigrants helped to solve labour shortages in the British steel, textile and engineering industries. TheĀ National Health ServiceĀ (NHS) recruited doctors from Pakistan in the 1960s.[9]
The British Pakistani population has grown from about 10,000 in 1951 to over 1.6 million in 2021.[10][11]Ā The vast majority of them live inĀ England, with a sizable number inĀ ScotlandĀ and smaller numbers inĀ WalesĀ andĀ Northern Ireland. According to theĀ 2021 Census, Pakistanis in England and Wales numbered 1,587,819 or 2.7% of the population.[12][13]Ā In Northern Ireland, the equivalent figure was 1,596, representing less than 0.1% of the population.[3]Ā The census in Scotland was delayed for a year and took place in 2022, the equivalent figure was 72,871, representing 1.3% of the population.[2]Ā The majority of British Pakistanis are Muslim; around 93% of those living inĀ England and WalesĀ at the time of theĀ 2021 CensusĀ stated their religion was Islam.[14]
Since their settlement, British Pakistanis have had diverse contributions and influences on British society, politics, culture, economy and sport. Whilst social issues include high relative poverty rates among the community according to the 2001 census,[15]Ā progress has been made in other metrics in recent years, with the 2021 Census showing British Pakistanis as having amongst theĀ highest levels of homeownershipĀ in England and Wales.[16][17]
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United Nations and decolonization
When the United Nations was established in 1945, 750 million people - almost a third of the world's population then - lived in Territories that were non-self-governing, dependent on colonial Powers.Ā
Since then, more thanĀ 80 former colonies have gained their independence. Among them, allĀ 11Ā Trust TerritoriesĀ have achieved self-determination through independence or free association with an independent State. Former Non-Self-Governing Territories ceased to be on the list of Non-Self-Governing Territories due to their change in status or as a result of their choice of independence, free association or integration with an independent State. Today, there areĀ 17 Non-Self-Governing TerritoriesĀ remaining and fewer than 2 million people live in such Territories
The decolonization efforts of the United Nations derive from the principle of āequal rights and self-determination of peoplesā as stipulated inĀ Article 1 (2)Ā of theĀ Charter of the United Nations, as well as from three specific chapters in the Charter which are devoted to the interests of dependent peoples. The Charter established, in itsĀ Chapter XIĀ ("Declaration regarding Non-Self-Governing Territories", Articles 73 and 74), the principles that continue to guide theĀ decolonization efforts of the United Nations. The Charter also established theĀ International Trusteeship SystemĀ inĀ Chapter XIIĀ (Articles 75-85) and theĀ Trusteeship CouncilĀ inĀ Chapter XIIIĀ (Articles 86-91) to monitorĀ the Trust Territories.
The Charter binds administering Powers, namelyĀ "Members of theĀ United Nations which haveĀ or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government", in the language of the Charter, to recognize that the interests of dependent territories are paramount, to agree to promote social, economic, political and educational progress in the Non-Self-Governing Territories with due respect for the culture of the peoples concerned, to assist the peoples in developing appropriate forms of self-government, and to take into account the political aspirations and stages of development and advancement of each Non-Self-Governing Territory. Administering Powers are also obliged under the Charter to transmit to the United NationsĀ information on conditions in the Non-Self-Governing Territories. The United Nations monitors progress towards self-determination in the Non-Self-Governing Territories.
In 1960, theĀ General AssemblyĀ adopted theĀ Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV)), known also as the Declaration on Decolonization. By this resolution, the General Assembly, considering the important role of the United Nations in assisting the movement for independence in Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories, solemnly proclaimed the necessity of bringing colonialism in all its forms and manifestations to a speedy and unconditional end, and in this context, declared, inter alia, that all people had a right to self-determination.Ā
According toĀ General Assembly resolution 1541 (XV)Ā ofĀ 1960 entitled "Principles which should guide Members in determining whether or not an obligation exists to transmit the information called for under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter",Ā a Non-Self-Governing Territory can be said to have reached a full measure of self-government by:
ā¢Ā Ā Ā Emergence as a sovereign independent State;
ā¢Ā Ā Ā Free association with an independent State;
ā¢Ā Ā Ā Integration with an independent State.
In addition,Ā by the "Declaration on Principles of International law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations", as approved by the General Assembly by itsĀ resolution 2625 (XXV)Ā of 1970, the General Assembly solemnly proclaimed the principles of international law concerning friendly relations and cooperation among States, including the principle of "equal rights and self-determination of peoples". In that principle, it is stated that the "establishment of a sovereign and independent State, the free association or integration with an independent State or the emergence into any other political status freely determined by a people constitute modes of implementing the right of self-determination by that people".
Intergovernmental bodies of the United Nations dealing with decolonization agenda
The General Assembly, byĀ itsĀ resolution 66 (I)Ā of 1946, initiallyĀ set up an ad hoc committee "to examine the Secretary-General's summary and analysis of the information transmitted under Article 73 (e) of the Charter with a view to aiding the General Assembly in its consideration of this information" which was composed in equal number of representatives of the Members transmitting information under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter and of representatives of Members elected on the basis of an equitable geographical representation.Ā In subsequent years,Ā the Special Committee on Information Transmitted under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter, later renamedĀ as the Committee on Information from Non-Self-Governing Territories, took over the task to examine the summaries and analyses of information transmitted under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter, including any papers prepared by the specialized agencies, and was dissolved inĀ 1963 (seeĀ General Assembly resolutionsĀ 146 (II),Ā 219 (III),Ā 332 (IV),Ā 333 (IV),Ā 569 (VI),Ā 646 (VII),Ā 933 (X),Ā 1332 (XIII),Ā 1700Ā (XVI)Ā andĀ 1970 (XVIII)).Ā
In 1961, the General Assembly, by itsĀ resolution 1654 (XVI), established theĀ Special Committee on the Situation with regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence of Colonial Countries and PeoplesĀ (also known as the Special Committee on Decolonization or C-24), as its subsidiary organ,Ā to monitor implementation of the 1960 Declaration on DeclarationĀ and to make recommendations on its application. The C-24 commenced its work in 1962 with the original 17 members, which was immediately expanded to 24 members by the end of 1962 (for more details on membership, seeĀ C-24 Members page).Ā Following the dissolution of the Committee on Information from Non-Self-Governing Territories, the C-24 was tasked to study information transmitted as prescribed under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter, pursuant toĀ General Assembly resolution 1970 (XVIII).
Agenda items relating to decolonization are also considered by theĀ Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee), one of theĀ Main CommitteesĀ of the General Assembly.Ā The Fourth Committee considers recommendations of the C-24 and prepares draft resolutions and decisions for submission to the plenary of the General Assembly..
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TheĀ Mandate for Syria and the LebanonĀ (French:Ā Mandat pour la Syrie et le Liban;Ā Arabic:Ā Ų§ŁŲ§ŁŲŖŲÆŲ§ŲØ Ų§ŁŁŲ±ŁŲ³Ł Ų¹ŁŁ Ų³ŁŲ±ŁŲ§ ŁŁŲØŁŲ§Ł,Ā romanized:Ā al-intidÄb al-faransÄ« Ź»alÄ sÅ«riyÄ wa-lubnÄn, also referred to as theĀ Levant States;[1][2]Ā 1923ā1946)[3]Ā was aĀ League of Nations mandate[4]Ā founded in theĀ aftermath of the First World WarĀ and theĀ partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, concerningĀ SyriaĀ andĀ Lebanon. The mandate system was supposed to differ fromĀ colonialism, with the governing country intended to act as a trustee until the inhabitants were considered eligible forĀ self-government. At that point, the mandate would terminate and aĀ sovereign stateĀ would be born.[5]
During the two years that followed the end of the war in 1918āand in accordance with theĀ SykesāPicot AgreementĀ signed by theĀ United KingdomĀ andĀ French Third RepublicĀ during the warāthe British held control of most ofĀ Ottoman IraqĀ (nowĀ Iraq) and the southern part ofĀ Ottoman SyriaĀ (PalestineĀ andĀ Transjordan), while the French controlled the rest of Ottoman Syria (includingĀ Lebanon,Ā Alexandretta, and portions ofĀ Cilicia).[4]Ā In the early 1920s, British and French control of these territories became formalized by theĀ League of Nations' mandate system. And on 29 September 1923 France was assigned the League of Nations mandate of Syria, which included the territory of present-day Lebanon and Alexandretta in addition to modern Syria.[6]
The administration of the region under the French was carried out through a number of different governments and territories, including theĀ Syrian FederationĀ (1922ā1924), theĀ State of Syria (1925ā1930)Ā and theĀ Mandatory Syrian Republic (1930ā1946), as well as smaller states:Ā Greater Lebanon, theĀ Alawite State, and theĀ Jabal Druze State.Ā Hatay StateĀ was annexed by Turkey in 1939. The French mandate lasted until 1946, when French troops eventually left Syria and Lebanon, which had both declared independence duringĀ World War II.[7]
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Ā @jaygray7102Ā here's the history of the creation of the European union and they think this can work it's what we try to tell people about but all this had a major effect on the world to specially the middle east
HISTORY OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION
RememberingĀ our roots
The origins of the Europe we know today go way, way back.
To understand what Europe does for us today,Ā itās important to know how it began.
The first attempts ā¦
Some people, like Charlemagne and Napoleon, tried to combine all the countries of Europe into a single nation. But back then Europe was mostly formed as a result of bloody wars.
In the 20th century two wars broke out on the continent of Europe and then spread to the whole world. Thatās why they are calledĀ world wars.
The First World War took place between 1914 and 1918, and around 20 years later the Second World War began.
The Second World War
After the Second World War, in 1945, Europe was in ruins.
Because of that awful war, which lasted for six years, 20 million children were orphaned, roads were completely destroyed, and people died of hunger and fled their countries. It was complete devastation.Ā Everything had to be rebuilt.
Two blocs in disagreement
After 1945 peace returned to Europe, but Europe was divided into two blocs: eastern Europe and western Europe. The dividing line ran through Germany.
So Germany was divided into two countries: East Germany and West Germany.
The lives of the people on either side were very different.
How did people live peacefully in the West in spite of everything?
And what does this have to do with the European Union, you might ask?
On 9 May 1950 a French statesman, Robert Schuman, had an ingenious idea: West Germany and France would work together in the coal and steel industries. That meant thatĀ they would never again think of going to war against each other.
Western Europe began to rebuild itself in peace.
The European Coal and Steel Community
Very soon other countries got involved in the coal and steel project: Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands.
On 18 April 1951 these six countries signed a text called a ātreatyā establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). Another step towards peace!
ļæ¼
EU pioneers
But building a united Europe wasnāt going to be easy. It needed truly committed visionary leaders ā both men and women ā to support the idea and turn it into a real common project. Today when we talk about them we call them the āEU pioneers.
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Ā @Waynep1066Ā TheĀ aftermath of World War IIĀ saw the rise of twoĀ superpowers, theĀ Soviet UnionĀ (USSR) and theĀ United StatesĀ (US). The aftermath ofĀ World War IIĀ was also defined by the rising threat ofĀ nuclear warfare, the creation and implementation of theĀ United NationsĀ as anĀ intergovernmental organization, and theĀ decolonizationĀ ofĀ Asia,Ā Oceania,Ā South AmericaĀ andĀ AfricaĀ byĀ EuropeanĀ andĀ East AsianĀ powers, most notably by theĀ United Kingdom,Ā France, andĀ Japan.
Once allies during World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became competitors on the world stage and engaged in theĀ Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers. It was instead characterized byĀ espionage,Ā political subversionĀ andĀ proxy wars.Ā Western EuropeĀ and Asia were rebuilt through the AmericanĀ Marshall Plan, whereasĀ Central and Eastern EuropeĀ fell under theĀ Soviet sphere of influenceĀ and eventually behind an "Iron Curtain". Europe was divided into a US-ledĀ Western BlocĀ and a USSR-ledĀ Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through theĀ Non-Aligned Movement. The war also saw aĀ nuclear arms raceĀ between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to aĀ mutually assured destructionĀ standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created theĀ United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to theĀ League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlawĀ wars of aggressionĀ in an attempt to avoid aĀ third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed theĀ European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into theĀ European Economic CommunityĀ and ultimately into the currentĀ European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war betweenĀ GermanyĀ andĀ FranceĀ by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war opened the way for decolonization from the great powers. Independence was granted toĀ IndiaĀ andĀ PakistanĀ (from the United Kingdom),Ā IndonesiaĀ (from theĀ Netherlands), theĀ PhilippinesĀ (from the US) and a number ofĀ Arab nations, from specific mandates which had been granted to great powers fromĀ League of Nations MandatesĀ and in addition to the establishment ofĀ IsraelĀ (from the United Kingdom). Independence for the nations ofĀ Sub-Saharan AfricaĀ came in the 1960s.
The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of communist influence in East Asia, with theĀ People's Republic of China, as theĀ Chinese Communist PartyĀ emergedĀ victoriousĀ from theĀ Chinese Civil WarĀ in 1949.
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Ā @oletramekaf5603Ā As William and Kate visitĀ Jamaica, the former British colony's plans to become the second Caribbean island to remove the Queen as head of state in short succession have been revealed. After almost 400 years under a British monarch, Barbados officially removed the Queen as head of state last November, having initially gained independence from the UK in 1966. In a message to President Dame Sandra Mason of the newly born republic, the Queen wished "good wishes for your happiness, peace and prosperity in the future". This marks the latest in a long list of countries breaking away from the British empire.
While a source of great pride for some Brits, the phrase "The empire on which the sun never sets" is one which has not been applicable to the United Kingdom for a long time now. However questionable the pride associated with this notion may be, it was once a fairly accurate statement to make. As our infographic shows, over the years, 65 countries have claimed independence so far. The first of which was the United States back on July 4, 1776 (although the Declaration wasn't officially recognized by the British government until 1783).
The most recent was in 1984, when Brunei became an Islamic sultanate. More recently, an attempt at independence in Scotland failed, after a closely fought referendum in 2014 ended with 55% voting to remain a part of the UK. TheĀ independence movementĀ is still strong, however, with the Scottish National Party still the largest political force in the country.
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
Ā
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Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
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Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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The Oslo Accords and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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That's the real problem In the middle east and, Arab world your all different in the middle east and north Africa that's why did partion the ottoman empire and why western Europe is different from central and Eastern Europe.
TheĀ OttomanāPersian WarsĀ orĀ OttomanāIranian WarsĀ were a series of wars betweenĀ Ottoman EmpireĀ and theĀ Safavid,Ā Afsharid,Ā Zand, andĀ QajarĀ dynasties ofĀ IranĀ (historically known asĀ Persia) through the 16thā19th centuries. The Ottomans consolidated their control of what is todayĀ TurkeyĀ in the 15th century, and gradually came into conflict with the emerging neighboring Iranian state, led byĀ Ismail IĀ of theĀ Safavid dynasty. The two states were arch rivals, and were also divided by religious grounds, the Ottomans being staunchlyĀ SunniĀ and the Safavids beingĀ Shia. A series of military conflicts ensued for centuries during which the two empires competed for control over easternĀ Anatolia, theĀ Caucasus, and Iraq. Had we not won ww1 and ww2 you would just have a bigger version or Palestine and problems would still exist between Greece and Macedonia turkey the Balkans all the way up to Ukraine but it's not our history but Partioning the Ottoman empire you can see what people have today because of it and not everyone was against the west even in the ottoman empire that region before ww1 had many different empires with different history from us in western Europe they where at each others throats for centuries..
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Ā @ZzBLEACHzĀ see this started in ww1 they created things to say they wanted peace in Europe then after ww2 they created something else to say they wanted to bring peace to the world after ww2 the European union was created 30 years ago and Russia changed at the same time stating they wanted to bring peace to Europe. But I haven't seen any peace since I was alive living in Europe I have watched Europe for all of us become the mess it has today for problems that can easily be sorted and the world outside of Europe where our empire used to be turn into places we go on holiday to now or to live to escape the b.s. here you need someone like me in the European union right now speaking for everyone.
Like many individuals around the globe, Woodrow Wilson was shocked by the outbreak of a devastating world war among European empires in 1914. As President of the United States, however, he had a unique opportunity to shape the outcome of this catastrophic conflict. He was a leading advocate for a new approach to international relations and the problem of war in which the first global political organization, the League of Nations, was to be the key mechanism for ensuring a peaceful and orderly world. Among theĀ papers of Woodrow WilsonĀ maintained by the Library of CongressāĀ Manuscript Division, one can find Wilsonās first draft of the covenant of the League of Nations, the founding document of the international organization that tried but failed to tame interstate warfare.
President Wilson viewed World War I as the folly of an old style of failed diplomacy. This timeworn diplomacy had sought to balance the power of the great European states and alliances against each other while they competed for selfish imperial interests. Unable to avoid American entry into the war in April 1917, Wilson committed himself to creating a new international order with a League of Nations at its center that would peacefully manage conflicts between states, great and small and put an end to senseless warfare. The League of Nations was not his vision alone ā ideas about a society or league of nations to facilitate or even enforce the peace had been discussed among Americans, Europeans and others. Nevertheless, Wilson became a driving force to establish the league as the guarantor of the post-war peace.
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IranāIsrael proxy conflict
Article
Ā
Talk
Im starting to think the world was a better place when rhe empires of europe existed and when we had control of the middle east after ww1 rhen given the world independence from us today
ššš
TheĀ IranāIsrael proxy conflict, also known as theĀ IranāIsrael proxy war[24]Ā orĀ IranāIsrael Cold War,[25]Ā is an ongoingĀ proxy conflictĀ betweenĀ IranĀ andĀ Israel. In theĀ IsraeliāLebanese conflict, Iran has supported LebaneseĀ ShiaĀ militias, most notablyĀ Hezbollah. In theĀ Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Iran has backed Palestinian groups such asĀ Hamas. Israel has supported Iranian rebels, such as theĀ People's Mujahedin of Iran, conducted airstrikesĀ against Iranian allies in SyriaĀ andĀ assassinated Iranian nuclear scientists. In 2018Ā Israeli forces directly attacked Iranian forcesĀ in Syria.[26]
Various reasons have been given for the Iran-Israel conflict. Iran and Israel had previously enjoyed warm ties due to common threats, but by 1990sĀ the USSR had dissolvedĀ andĀ Iraq had been weakened.[29]Ā Iranian Islamists have long championed theĀ Palestinian people, whom they perceive as oppressed.[30]Ā Scholars believe that by supporting the Palestinians, Iran seeks greater acceptance among Sunnis and Arabs, both of whom dominate the Middle East.[31][32]Ā Ideologically, Iran seeks to replace Israel with aĀ one-state solutionĀ (though Iran has at times also supported theĀ two-state solution[33]) and has predicted Israel's demise.[34]Ā Israel sees Iran as an existential threat,[35]Ā and accuses its regime of harboring genocidal intentions.[36]Ā Consequently, Israel has sought sanctions andĀ military action against IranĀ to stop it from acquiring nuclear weapons.[37]
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Ā @CelticLaserCraftsĀ
Trouble is with Europe today and not the world around us is that problems that stem from ww1 Here only ended 30 years ago for some in central and eastern Europe now them problems in Ukraine and Palestine and all over the middle east have ignited here and People live in the past with our colonial history to it's all caused all kinds of problems here now.
After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers, compounded by rising nationalism among ethnic groups, exploded in 1914, when World War I started.[144]Ā Over 65 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918; 20Ā million soldiers and civilians died.[145]Ā On one side were Germany,Ā Austria-Hungary, theĀ Ottoman EmpireĀ and Bulgaria (theĀ Central Powers/Triple Alliance), while on the other side stoodĀ SerbiaĀ and theĀ Triple Entente(France, Britain and Russia), which were joined by Italy in 1915, Romania in 1916 and the United States in 1917. TheĀ Western FrontĀ involved especially brutal combat without any territorial gains by either side. Single battles likeĀ VerdunĀ and theĀ SommeĀ killed hundreds of thousands. Czarist Russia collapsed in theĀ February RevolutionĀ of 1917 and Germany claimed victory on theĀ Eastern Front. After eight months ofĀ liberal rule, theĀ October RevolutionĀ broughtĀ Vladimir LeninĀ and theĀ BolsheviksĀ to power, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union. WithĀ American entry into the warĀ in 1917, and the failure ofĀ Germany's spring 1918 offensive, Germany had run out of manpower. Germany's allies,Ā Austria-HungaryĀ and theĀ Ottoman Empire, surrendered and dissolved, followed by Germany on 11 November 1918.[146][147]
ļæ¼Detail fromĀ William Orpen's paintingĀ The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919, showing the signing of the peace treaty by a minor German official opposite to the representatives of the winning powers.
The world war was settled by the victors at theĀ Paris Peace Conference, 1919. The major decisions were the creation of theĀ League of Nations; peace treaties with defeated enemies, most notably theĀ Treaty of VersaillesĀ with Germany; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions asĀ "mandates", chiefly to Britain and France; and the drawing of new national boundaries to better reflect the forces of nationalism.[148][149]Ā Multiple nations were required to signĀ minority rights treaties.[150]Ā The Treaty of Versailles itself weakenedĀ Germany's military powerĀ and placedĀ full blame for the warĀ andĀ costly reparationsĀ on its shoulders ā the humiliation and resentment in Germany was probably one of the causes of Nazi success and indirectly aĀ cause of World War II.
In theĀ Treaty of VersaillesĀ (1919) the winners recognised the new states (Poland,Ā Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria,Ā Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) created in central Europe from the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, based on national (ethnic) self-determination. It was a peaceful era with a few small wars before 1922 such as theĀ UkrainianāSoviet WarĀ (1917ā1921) and theĀ PolishāSoviet WarĀ (1919ā1921). Prosperity was widespread, and the major cities sponsored a youth culture called the "Roaring Twenties" or "Jazz Age".[151]
The Allied victory in the First World War seemed to mark the triumph ofĀ liberalism. Historian Martin Blinkhorn argues that the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of "cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration,Ā national self-determination,Ā free-market economics,Ā representativeĀ andĀ responsible government,Ā free trade,Ā unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the League of Nations."[152]Ā However, as early as 1917, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the newĀ communist movement. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but succeeded in Russia.[153]Ā Italy adopted an authoritarian dictatorship known asĀ FascismĀ in 1922. Authoritarian regimes replaced democracy in the 1930s inĀ Nazi Germany,Ā Portugal,Ā Austria, Poland,Ā Greece, the Baltic countries andĀ Francoist Spain. By 1940, there were only four liberal democracies left on the European continent:Ā France, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden.[154]
Great Depression: 1929ā39
edit
Main article:Ā Great Depression
ļæ¼Adolf Hitler addressing the Reichstag on 23 March 1933
After theĀ Wall Street Crash of 1929, most of the world sank into a Great Depression; prices and profits fell and unemployment soared. The worst hit sectors included heavy industry, export-oriented agriculture, mining and lumbering, and construction. World trade fell by two-thirds.[155][156]
In most of Europe, many nations turned to dictators and authoritarian regimes. The most momentous change of government came whenĀ Hitler took power in GermanyĀ in 1933. The main institution that was meant to bring stability was theĀ League of Nations, created in 1919. However the League failed to resolve any major crises, undermined by the bellicosity ofĀ Nazi Germany,Ā Imperial Japan, the Soviet Union, andĀ Mussolini'sĀ Italy, and by the non-participation of the United States. By 1937 it was largely ignored.[157]
Italy conquered EthiopiaĀ in 1931.[158]Ā TheĀ Spanish Civil WarĀ (1936ā1939) was won by the rebels (theĀ Nationalist faction), led byĀ Francisco Franco. The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent.[159]
World War II
edit
Main articles:Ā Causes of World War II,Ā World War II,Ā Diplomatic history of World War II,Ā Home front during World War II, andĀ The Holocaust
ļæ¼Starving Jewish children inĀ Warsaw GhettoĀ (1940ā1943)ļæ¼American and Soviet troopsĀ meet in April 1945, east of theĀ Elbe River.
In 1938Ā Adolf HitlerĀ annexed theĀ Sudetenland. In theĀ Munich Agreement, Britain and France adopted a policy ofĀ appeasement, butĀ Germany subsequently took over the rest of Czechoslovakia. After allying with Japan in theĀ Anti-Comintern PactĀ and then also withĀ Benito Mussolini's Italy in the "Pact of Steel", and finally signing aĀ non-aggression treatyĀ with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched theĀ Second World WarĀ on 1 September 1939 byĀ attacking Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the "Phoney War" period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. Britain defeated Germany's air attacks in theĀ Battle of Britain. Hitler's goal was to control Eastern Europe but theĀ attack on the Soviet UnionĀ was delayed until June 1941 and theĀ WehrmachtĀ was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941.[160]
Over the next year the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats. War raged between theĀ Axis PowersĀ (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and theĀ Allied ForcesĀ (British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). The Allied Forces won in North Africa,Ā invaded ItalyĀ in 1943, andĀ recaptured FranceĀ in 1944. In 1945 Germany itself wasĀ invaded from the east by the Soviet UnionĀ andĀ from the west by the other Allies. As the Red Army conquered theĀ ReichstagĀ in theĀ Battle of Berlin,Ā Hitler committed suicideĀ and Germany surrendered.[161]Ā World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, causingĀ between 50 and 80 million deaths, the majority of whom were civilians (approximately 38 to 55 million).[162]
This period was also marked by systematic genocide. In 1942ā45, separately from the war-related deaths, theĀ NazisĀ killed over 11 million civiliansĀ identified through IBM-enabled censuses, including theĀ majority of the JewsĀ andĀ GypsiesĀ of Europe, millions ofĀ PolishĀ andĀ SovietĀ Slavs, homosexuals,Ā Jehovah's Witnesses, disabled people, and political enemies. Meanwhile, in the 1930s the Soviet system ofĀ forced labour,Ā expulsionsĀ andĀ allegedly engineered famineĀ had a similar death toll. Millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers.[163]
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TheĀ aftermath of World War IĀ saw far-reaching and wide-ranging cultural, economic, and social change acrossĀ Europe,Ā Asia,Ā Africa, and even in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries were abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries were redrawn, international organizations were established, and many new and old ideologies took a firm hold in people's minds. Additionally, culture in the nations involved was greatly changed.Ā World War IĀ also had the effect of bringing political transformation to most of the principal parties involved in the conflict, transforming them intoĀ electoral democraciesĀ by bringing near-universal suffrageĀ for the first time in history, as in Germany (1919 German federal election), Great Britain (1918 United Kingdom general election), and Turkey (1923 Turkish general election).[citation needed]
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TheĀ aftermath of World War IIĀ saw the rise of twoĀ superpowers, theĀ Soviet UnionĀ (USSR) and theĀ United StatesĀ (US). The aftermath ofĀ World War IIĀ was also defined by the rising threat ofĀ nuclear warfare, the creation and implementation of theĀ United NationsĀ as anĀ intergovernmental organization, and theĀ decolonizationĀ ofĀ Asia,Ā Oceania,Ā South AmericaĀ andĀ AfricaĀ byĀ EuropeanĀ andĀ East AsianĀ powers, most notably by theĀ United Kingdom,Ā France, andĀ Japan.
OnceĀ allies during World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became competitors on the world stage and engaged in theĀ Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers. It was instead characterized byĀ espionage,Ā political subversionĀ andĀ proxy wars.Ā Western EuropeĀ and Asia were rebuilt through the AmericanĀ Marshall Plan, whereasĀ Central and Eastern EuropeĀ fell under theĀ Soviet sphere of influenceĀ and eventually behind an "Iron Curtain". Europe was divided into a US-ledĀ Western BlocĀ and a USSR-ledĀ Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through theĀ Non-Aligned Movement. The war also saw aĀ nuclear arms raceĀ between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to aĀ mutually assured destructionĀ standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created theĀ United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to theĀ League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlawĀ wars of aggressionĀ in an attempt to avoid aĀ third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed theĀ European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into theĀ European Economic CommunityĀ and ultimately into the currentĀ European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war betweenĀ GermanyĀ andĀ FranceĀ by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war opened the way for decolonization from the great powers. Independence was granted toĀ IndiaĀ andĀ PakistanĀ (from the United Kingdom),Ā IndonesiaĀ (from theĀ Netherlands), theĀ PhilippinesĀ (from the US), as well asĀ IsraelĀ and a number ofĀ Arab nationsĀ from specific Mandates which had been granted to great powers by theĀ League of Nations. Independence for the nations ofĀ Sub-Saharan AfricaĀ came in the 1960s.
The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of communist influence in East Asia, with theĀ People's Republic of China, as theĀ Chinese Communist PartyĀ emergedĀ victoriousĀ from theĀ Chinese Civil WarĀ in 1949.
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TheĀ aftermath of World War IIĀ saw the rise of twoĀ superpowers, theĀ Soviet UnionĀ (USSR) and theĀ United StatesĀ (US). The aftermath ofĀ World War IIĀ was also defined by the rising threat ofĀ nuclear warfare, the creation and implementation of theĀ United NationsĀ as anĀ intergovernmental organization, and theĀ decolonizationĀ ofĀ Asia,Ā Oceania,Ā South AmericaĀ andĀ AfricaĀ byĀ EuropeanĀ andĀ East AsianĀ powers, most notably by theĀ United Kingdom,Ā France, andĀ Japan.
OnceĀ allies during World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became competitors on the world stage and engaged in theĀ Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers. It was instead characterized byĀ espionage,Ā political subversionĀ andĀ proxy wars.Ā Western EuropeĀ and Asia were rebuilt through the AmericanĀ Marshall Plan, whereasĀ Central and Eastern EuropeĀ fell under theĀ Soviet sphere of influenceĀ and eventually behind an "Iron Curtain". Europe was divided into a US-ledĀ Western BlocĀ and a USSR-ledĀ Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through theĀ Non-Aligned Movement. The war also saw aĀ nuclear arms raceĀ between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to aĀ mutually assured destructionĀ standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created theĀ United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to theĀ League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlawĀ wars of aggressionĀ in an attempt to avoid aĀ third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed theĀ European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into theĀ European Economic CommunityĀ and ultimately into the currentĀ European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war betweenĀ GermanyĀ andĀ FranceĀ by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war opened the way for decolonization from the great powers. Independence was granted toĀ IndiaĀ andĀ PakistanĀ (from the United Kingdom),Ā IndonesiaĀ (from theĀ Netherlands), theĀ PhilippinesĀ (from the US), as well asĀ IsraelĀ and a number ofĀ Arab nationsĀ from specific Mandates which had been granted to great powers by theĀ League of Nations. Independence for the nations ofĀ Sub-Saharan AfricaĀ came in the 1960s.
The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of communist influence in East Asia, with theĀ People's Republic of China, as theĀ Chinese Communist PartyĀ emergedĀ victoriousĀ from theĀ Chinese Civil WarĀ in 1949.
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The settlement ofĀ Las Vegas, Nevada was founded in 1905 after the opening of aĀ railroad that linked Los Angeles and Salt Lake City. The stopover attracted some farmers (mostly from Utah) to the area, and fresh water was piped in to the settlement. In 1911, the town was incorporated as part of the newly founded Clark County. Urbanization took off in 1931 when work started on the Boulder Dam (now theĀ Hoover Dam), bringing a huge influx of young male workers, for whom theaters andĀ casinosĀ were built, largely by theĀ Mafia. Electricity from the dam also enabled the building of many new hotels along the Strip. The arrival ofĀ Howard HughesĀ in 1966 did much to offset mob influence and helped turn Las Vegas into more of a family tourist center, now classified as a Mega resort.
The name Las VegasāSpanish for āthe meadowsāāwas given to the area in 1829 by Rafael Rivera, a member of the Spanish explorerĀ Antonio ArmijoĀ trading party that was traveling toĀ Los Angeles, and stopped for water there on theĀ Old Spanish TrailĀ fromĀ New Mexico. At that time, several parts of the valley containedĀ artesian wellsĀ surrounded by extensive green areas. The flows from the wells fed theĀ Las Vegas Wash, which runs to theĀ Colorado River.
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Decolonization of Asia and Africa,Ā 1945ā1960
Between 1945 and 1960, three dozen new states inĀ AsiaĀ andĀ AfricaĀ achieved autonomy or outright independence from their European colonial rulers.
ļæ¼
Harold MacMillan, British Prime Minister, helped begin decolonization
There was no one process of decolonization. In some areas, it was peaceful, and orderly. In many others, independence was achieved only after a protracted revolution. A few newly independent countries acquired stable governments almost immediately; others were ruled by dictators or military juntas for decades, or endured long civil wars. Some European governments welcomed a new relationship with their former colonies; others contested decolonization militarily. The process of decolonization coincided with the new Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, and with the early development of the new United Nations. Decolonization was often affected by superpower competition, and had a definite impact on the evolution of that competition. It also significantly changed the pattern of international relations in a more general sense.
The creation of so many new countries, some of which occupied strategic locations, others of which possessed significant natural resources, and most of which were desperately poor, altered the composition of the United Nations and political complexity of every region of the globe. In the mid to late 19th century, the European powers colonized much of Africa and Southeast Asia. During the decades of imperialism, the industrializing powers of Europe viewed the African and Asian continents as reservoirs of raw materials, labor, and territory for future settlement. In most cases, however, significant development and European settlement in these colonies was sporadic. However, the colonies were exploited, sometimes brutally, for natural and labor resources, and sometimes even for military conscripts. In addition, the introduction of colonial rule drew arbitrary natural boundaries where none had existed before, dividing ethnic and linguistic groups and natural features, and laying the foundation for the creation of numerous states lacking geographic, linguistic, ethnic, or political affinity.
During World War II Japan, itself a significant imperial power, drove the European powers out of Asia. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, local nationalist movements in the former Asian colonies campaigned for independence rather than a return to European colonial rule. In many cases, as in Indonesia and French Indochina, these nationalists had been guerrillas fighting the Japanese after European surrenders, or were former members of colonial military establishments. These independence movements often appealed to the United States Government for support.
While the United States generally supported the concept of national self-determination, it also had strong ties to its European allies, who had imperial claims on their former colonies. The Cold War only served to complicate the U.S. position, as U.S. support for decolonization was offset by American concern over communist expansion and Soviet strategic ambitions in Europe. Several of the NATO allies asserted that their colonial possessions provided them with economic and military strength that would otherwise be lost to the alliance. Nearly all of the United Statesā European allies believed that after their recovery from World War II their colonies would finally provide the combination of raw materials and protected markets for finished goods that would cement the colonies to Europe. Whether or not this was the case, the alternative of allowing the colonies to slip away, perhaps into the United Statesā economic sphere or that of another power, was unappealing to every European government interested in postwar stability. Although the U.S. Government did not force the issue, it encouraged the European imperial powers to negotiate an early withdrawal from their overseas colonies. The United States granted independence to the Philippines in 1946.
However, as the Cold War competition with the Soviet Union came to dominate U.S. foreign policy concerns in the late 1940s and 1950s, the Truman and Eisenhower Administrations grew increasingly concerned that as the European powers lost their colonies or granted them independence, Soviet-supported communist parties might achieve power in the new states. This might serve to shift the international balance of power in favor of the Soviet Union and remove access to economic resources from U.S. allies. Events such as the Indonesian struggle for independence from the Netherlands (1945ā50), the Vietnamese war against France (1945ā54), and the nationalist and professed socialist takeovers of Egypt (1952) and Iran (1951) served to reinforce such fears, even if new governments did not directly link themselves to the Soviet Union. Thus, the United States used aid packages, technical assistance and sometimes even military intervention to encourage newly independent nations in the Third World to adopt governments that aligned with the West. The Soviet Union deployed similar tactics in an effort to encourage new nations to join the communist bloc, and attempted to convince newly decolonized countries that communism was an intrinsically non-imperialist economic and political ideology. Many of the new nations resisted the pressure to be drawn into the Cold War, joined in the ānonaligned movement,ā which formed after the Bandung conference of 1955, and focused on internal development.
The newly independent nations that emerged in the 1950s and the 1960s became an important factor in changing the balance of power within the United Nations. In 1946, there were 35 member states in the United Nations; as the newly independent nations of the āthird worldā joined the organization, by 1970 membership had swelled to 127. These new member states had a few characteristics in common; they were non-white, with developing economies, facing internal problems that were the result of their colonial past, which sometimes put them at odds with European countries and made them suspicious of European-style governmental structures, political ideas, and economic institutions. These countries also became vocal advocates of continuing decolonization, with the result that the UN Assembly was often ahead of the Security Council on issues of self-governance and decolonization. The new nations pushed the UN toward accepting resolutions for independence for colonial states and creating a special committee on colonialism, demonstrating that even though some nations continued to struggle for independence, in the eyes of the international community, the colonial era was ending.
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Ā @SuperSkipMasterĀ LoyalistsĀ were colonists in theĀ Thirteen ColoniesĀ who remained loyal to theĀ British CrownĀ during theĀ American Revolutionary War, often referred to asĀ Tories,[1][2]Ā Royalists, orĀ King's MenĀ at the time. They were opposed by theĀ PatriotsĀ or Whigs, who supported the revolution, and considered them "persons inimical to the liberties of America.
Prominent Loyalists repeatedly assured theĀ British governmentĀ that many thousands of them would spring to arms and fight for the Crown. The British government acted in expectation of that, especially during theĀ Southern campaignsĀ of 1780 and 1781. Britain was able to effectively protect the people only in areas where they had military control, and in return, the number of military Loyalists was significantly lower than what had been expected. Due to conflicting political views, loyalists were often under suspicion of those in the British military, who did not know whom they could fully trust in such a conflicted situation; they were often looked down upon.[4]
Patriots watched suspected Loyalists very closely and would not tolerate any organized Loyalist opposition. Many outspoken or militarily active Loyalists were forced to flee, especially to their stronghold ofĀ New York City.Ā William Franklin, the royal governor ofĀ New JerseyĀ and son of Patriot leaderĀ Benjamin Franklin, became the leader of the Loyalists after his release from a Patriot prison in 1778. He worked to build Loyalist military units to fight in the war.Ā Woodrow WilsonĀ wrote that
"there had been no less than twenty-five thousand loyalists enlisted in the British service during the five years of the fighting. At one time (1779) they had actually outnumbered the whole of the continental muster under the personal command of Washington."[5]
When their cause was defeated, about 15 percent of the Loyalists (65,000ā70,000 people) fled to other parts of theĀ British Empire; especially to theĀ Kingdom of Great BritainĀ itself, or toĀ British North AmericaĀ (present dayĀ Canada).[6]Ā The southern Loyalists moved mostly toĀ Florida, which had remained loyal to the Crown, and to British Caribbean possessions. Northern Loyalists largely migrated toĀ Ontario,Ā Quebec,Ā New Brunswick, andĀ Nova Scotia. They called themselvesĀ United Empire Loyalists. Most were compensated with Canadian land or British cash distributed through formal claims procedures. Loyalists who left the US received over Ā£3 million or about 37% of their losses from the British government. Loyalists who stayed in the US were generally able to retain their property and become American citizens.[7]Ā Many Loyalists eventually returned to the US after the war and discriminatory laws had been repealed.[8]Ā Historians have estimated that between 15% and 20% (300,000 to 400,000) of the 2,000,000 whites in the colonies in 1775 were Loyalists..
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Ā @LewisNuke92Ā Ā @SuperSkipMasterĀ LoyalistsĀ were colonists in theĀ Thirteen ColoniesĀ who remained loyal to theĀ British CrownĀ during theĀ American Revolutionary War, often referred to asĀ Tories,[1][2]Ā Royalists, orĀ King's MenĀ at the time. They were opposed by theĀ PatriotsĀ or Whigs, who supported the revolution, and considered them "persons inimical to the liberties of America.
Prominent Loyalists repeatedly assured theĀ British governmentĀ that many thousands of them would spring to arms and fight for the Crown. The British government acted in expectation of that, especially during theĀ Southern campaignsĀ of 1780 and 1781. Britain was able to effectively protect the people only in areas where they had military control, and in return, the number of military Loyalists was significantly lower than what had been expected. Due to conflicting political views, loyalists were often under suspicion of those in the British military, who did not know whom they could fully trust in such a conflicted situation; they were often looked down upon.[4]
Patriots watched suspected Loyalists very closely and would not tolerate any organized Loyalist opposition. Many outspoken or militarily active Loyalists were forced to flee, especially to their stronghold ofĀ New York City.Ā William Franklin, the royal governor ofĀ New JerseyĀ and son of Patriot leaderĀ Benjamin Franklin, became the leader of the Loyalists after his release from a Patriot prison in 1778. He worked to build Loyalist military units to fight in the war.Ā Woodrow WilsonĀ wrote that
"there had been no less than twenty-five thousand loyalists enlisted in the British service during the five years of the fighting. At one time (1779) they had actually outnumbered the whole of the continental muster under the personal command of Washington."[5]
When their cause was defeated, about 15 percent of the Loyalists (65,000ā70,000 people) fled to other parts of theĀ British Empire; especially to theĀ Kingdom of Great BritainĀ itself, or toĀ British North AmericaĀ (present dayĀ Canada).[6]Ā The southern Loyalists moved mostly toĀ Florida, which had remained loyal to the Crown, and to British Caribbean possessions. Northern Loyalists largely migrated toĀ Ontario,Ā Quebec,Ā New Brunswick, andĀ Nova Scotia. They called themselvesĀ United Empire Loyalists. Most were compensated with Canadian land or British cash distributed through formal claims procedures. Loyalists who left the US received over Ā£3 million or about 37% of their losses from the British government. Loyalists who stayed in the US were generally able to retain their property and become American citizens.[7]Ā Many Loyalists eventually returned to the US after the war and discriminatory laws had been repealed.[8]Ā Historians have estimated that between 15% and 20% (300,000 to 400,000) of the 2,000,000 whites in the colonies in 1775 were Loyalists.
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Ā @mr.heisenberg0122Ā LoyalistsĀ were colonists in theĀ Thirteen ColoniesĀ who remained loyal to theĀ British CrownĀ during theĀ American Revolutionary War, often referred to asĀ Tories,[1][2]Ā Royalists, orĀ King's MenĀ at the time. They were opposed by theĀ PatriotsĀ or Whigs, who supported the revolution, and considered them "persons inimical to the liberties of America.
Prominent Loyalists repeatedly assured theĀ British governmentĀ that many thousands of them would spring to arms and fight for the Crown. The British government acted in expectation of that, especially during theĀ Southern campaignsĀ of 1780 and 1781. Britain was able to effectively protect the people only in areas where they had military control, and in return, the number of military Loyalists was significantly lower than what had been expected. Due to conflicting political views, loyalists were often under suspicion of those in the British military, who did not know whom they could fully trust in such a conflicted situation; they were often looked down upon.[4]
Patriots watched suspected Loyalists very closely and would not tolerate any organized Loyalist opposition. Many outspoken or militarily active Loyalists were forced to flee, especially to their stronghold ofĀ New York City.Ā William Franklin, the royal governor ofĀ New JerseyĀ and son of Patriot leaderĀ Benjamin Franklin, became the leader of the Loyalists after his release from a Patriot prison in 1778. He worked to build Loyalist military units to fight in the war.Ā Woodrow WilsonĀ wrote that
"there had been no less than twenty-five thousand loyalists enlisted in the British service during the five years of the fighting. At one time (1779) they had actually outnumbered the whole of the continental muster under the personal command of Washington."[5]
When their cause was defeated, about 15 percent of the Loyalists (65,000ā70,000 people) fled to other parts of theĀ British Empire; especially to theĀ Kingdom of Great BritainĀ itself, or toĀ British North AmericaĀ (present dayĀ Canada).[6]Ā The southern Loyalists moved mostly toĀ Florida, which had remained loyal to the Crown, and to British Caribbean possessions. Northern Loyalists largely migrated toĀ Ontario,Ā Quebec,Ā New Brunswick, andĀ Nova Scotia. They called themselvesĀ United Empire Loyalists. Most were compensated with Canadian land or British cash distributed through formal claims procedures. Loyalists who left the US received over Ā£3 million or about 37% of their losses from the British government. Loyalists who stayed in the US were generally able to retain their property and become American citizens.[7]Ā Many Loyalists eventually returned to the US after the war and discriminatory laws had been repealed.[8]Ā Historians have estimated that between 15% and 20% (300,000 to 400,000) of the 2,000,000 whites in the colonies in 1775 were Loyalists.
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The process of colonization was a combination of voluntary integration into the Russian Empire and outright seizure. The Little Horde and part of the Middle Horde signed treaties of protection with Russia in the 1730s and 1740s. Major parts of the northeast and central Kazakh territories were incorporated into the Russian Empire by 1840. With the Russian seizure of territories belonging to the Senior Horde in the 1860s, the tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.
The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and Great Britain. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the Kazakh language and identity. There were uprisings against colonial rule during the final years of tsarist Russia, with the most serious occurring in 1916. The destruction of the nomadic life, prior to and during the Communist period, created a Kazakh diaspora in neighboring countries, especially western China. Since independence in 1991, the government has encouraged the return of ethnic Kazakhs by offering subsidies for returnees.
Although there was a brief period of autonomy during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within Russia and, in 1936, a Soviet republic.
Soviet repression of the traditional elites, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s-1930s, brought about mass hunger and led to unrest. Soviet rule, however, took hold, and a communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of thousands exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and later became home for hundreds of thousands evacuated from the Second World War battlefields. The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort.
The period of the Second World War marked an increase in industrialization and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Josif Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" program to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, sped up the development of the agricultural sector, which to this day remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population.
Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs took place in Almaty to protest the methods of the communist system. Soviet troops suppressed the unrest, and dozens of demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost. Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) in October 1990. Following the August 1991 abortive coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991.
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The process of colonization was a combination of voluntary integration into the Russian Empire and outright seizure. The Little Horde and part of the Middle Horde signed treaties of protection with Russia in the 1730s and 1740s. Major parts of the northeast and central Kazakh territories were incorporated into the Russian Empire by 1840. With the Russian seizure of territories belonging to the Senior Horde in the 1860s, the tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.
The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and Great Britain. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the Kazakh language and identity. There were uprisings against colonial rule during the final years of tsarist Russia, with the most serious occurring in 1916. The destruction of the nomadic life, prior to and during the Communist period, created a Kazakh diaspora in neighboring countries, especially western China. Since independence in 1991, the government has encouraged the return of ethnic Kazakhs by offering subsidies for returnees.
Although there was a brief period of autonomy during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within Russia and, in 1936, a Soviet republic.
Soviet repression of the traditional elites, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s-1930s, brought about mass hunger and led to unrest. Soviet rule, however, took hold, and a communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of thousands exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and later became home for hundreds of thousands evacuated from the Second World War battlefields. The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort.
The period of the Second World War marked an increase in industrialization and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Josif Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" program to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, sped up the development of the agricultural sector, which to this day remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population.
Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs took place in Almaty to protest the methods of the communist system. Soviet troops suppressed the unrest, and dozens of demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost. Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) in October 1990. Following the August 1991 abortive coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991.
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The modern Middle East began afterĀ World War I, when the Ottoman Empire, which was allied with theĀ Central Powers, was defeated by the British Empire and their allies andĀ partitionedĀ into a number of separate nations, initially underĀ BritishĀ andĀ French Mandates. Other defining events in this transformation included the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the eventual departure of European powers, notablyĀ BritainĀ andĀ FranceĀ by the end of the 1960s. They were supplanted in some part by the rising influence of the United States from the 1970s onwards.
In the 20th century, the region's significant stocks ofĀ crude oilĀ gave it new strategic and economic importance. Mass production of oil began around 1945, with Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, and theĀ United Arab EmiratesĀ having large quantities of oil.[37]Ā EstimatedĀ oil reserves, especially in Saudi Arabia and Iran, are some of the highest in the world, and the international oil cartelĀ OPECĀ is dominated by Middle Eastern countries.
During the Cold War, the Middle East was a theater of ideological struggle between the two superpowers and their allies:Ā NATOĀ and the United States on one side, and theĀ Soviet UnionĀ andĀ Warsaw PactĀ on the other, as they competed to influence regional allies. Besides the political reasons there was also the "ideological conflict" between the two systems. Moreover, asĀ Louise FawcettĀ argues, among many important areas of contention, or perhaps more accurately of anxiety, were, first, the desires of the superpowers to gain strategic advantage in the region, second, the fact that the region contained some two-thirds of the world's oil reserves in a context where oil was becoming increasingly vital to the economy of the Western world [...][38]Ā Within this contextual framework, the United States sought to divert the Arab world from Soviet influence. Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the region has experienced both periods of relative peace and tolerance and periods of conflict particularly betweenĀ SunnisĀ andĀ Shiites.
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Please can you stop deleting people's comments Israel and Palestine should have had peace in 1993 and us in Europe take the brunt of this because the middkec East wjf Arab world as it is today wouldn't exist with out us.
The modern Middle East began afterĀ World War I, when the Ottoman Empire, which was allied with theĀ Central Powers, was defeated by the British Empire and their allies andĀ partitionedĀ into a number of separate nations, initially underĀ BritishĀ andĀ French Mandates. Other defining events in this transformation included the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the eventual departure of European powers, notablyĀ BritainĀ andĀ FranceĀ by the end of the 1960s. They were supplanted in some part by the rising influence of the United States from the 1970s onwards.
In the 20th century, the region's significant stocks ofĀ crude oilĀ gave it new strategic and economic importance. Mass production of oil began around 1945, with Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, and theĀ United Arab EmiratesĀ having large quantities of oil.[37]Ā EstimatedĀ oil reserves, especially in Saudi Arabia and Iran, are some of the highest in the world, and the international oil cartelĀ OPECĀ is dominated by Middle Eastern countries.
During the Cold War, the Middle East was a theater of ideological struggle between the two superpowers and their allies:Ā NATOĀ and the United States on one side, and theĀ Soviet UnionĀ andĀ Warsaw PactĀ on the other, as they competed to influence regional allies. Besides the political reasons there was also the "ideological conflict" between the two systems. Moreover, asĀ Louise FawcettĀ argues, among many important areas of contention, or perhaps more accurately of anxiety, were, first, the desires of the superpowers to gain strategic advantage in the region, second, the fact that the region contained some two-thirds of the world's oil reserves in a context where oil was becoming increasingly vital to the economy of the Western world [...][38]Ā Within this contextual framework, the United States sought to divert the Arab world from Soviet influence. Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the region has experienced both periods of relative peace and tolerance and periods of conflict particularly betweenĀ SunnisĀ andĀ Shiites.
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They will delete this to but most of the worlds Muslims lived under the British before ww1 and France had a lot in there empire to they are different all over the world and Muslims from eastern Europe and Russia they won't even have a problem with us it's not our history that's gone on to long in the middle east and effects us more in Europe now then you.
This is about British Pakistanis.
The UK is home to the largest Pakistani community inĀ Europe, with the population of British Pakistanis exceeding 1.6 million based on the 2021 Census. British Pakistanis are the second-largestĀ ethnic minority population in the United KingdomĀ and also make up the second-largest sub-group ofĀ British Asians. In addition, they are one of the largestĀ Overseas PakistaniĀ communities, similar in number to theĀ Pakistani diaspora in the UAE.[6][7]
Due to theĀ historical relationsĀ between the two countries, immigration to the UK from the region, which is now Pakistan, began in small numbers in the mid-nineteenth century when parts of what is now Pakistan came under theĀ British India. People from those regions served as soldiers in theĀ British Indian ArmyĀ and some were deployed to other parts of theĀ British Empire. However, it was following theĀ Second World WarĀ and the break-up of the British Empire and theĀ independenceĀ ofĀ PakistanĀ that Pakistani immigration to the United Kingdom increased, especially during the 1950s and 1960s. This was made easier as Pakistan was a member of theĀ Commonwealth.[8]Ā Pakistani immigrants helped to solve labour shortages in the British steel, textile and engineering industries. TheĀ National Health ServiceĀ (NHS) recruited doctors from Pakistan in the 1960s.[9]
The British Pakistani population has grown from about 10,000 in 1951 to over 1.6 million in 2021.[10][11]Ā The vast majority of them live inĀ England, with a sizable number inĀ ScotlandĀ and smaller numbers inĀ WalesĀ andĀ Northern Ireland. According to theĀ 2021 Census, Pakistanis in England and Wales numbered 1,587,819 or 2.7% of the population.[12][13]Ā In Northern Ireland, the equivalent figure was 1,596, representing less than 0.1% of the population.[3]Ā The census in Scotland was delayed for a year and took place in 2022, the equivalent figure was 72,871, representing 1.3% of the population.[2]Ā The majority of British Pakistanis are Muslim; around 93% of those living inĀ England and WalesĀ at the time of theĀ 2021 CensusĀ stated their religion was Islam.[14]
Since their settlement, British Pakistanis have had diverse contributions and influences on British society, politics, culture, economy and sport. Whilst social issues include high relative poverty rates among the community according to the 2001 census,[15]Ā progress has been made in other metrics in recent years, with the 2021 Census showing British Pakistanis as having amongst theĀ highest levels of homeownershipĀ in England and Wales.[16][17]
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Ā @celinecucinelli8208Ā we want you to see the world this is from save the children about the UK started after ww1 they blame us British for poverty and starvation and children being hungry they are tearing us apart for no reason at all
Us Brits gave billions of not trillions to these charities
What has a 100-year-old British charity got to say about decolonisation?
Tuesday 24th May 2022
Time for a bit of self-reflection.
From one staff member on behalf of a 1,400-person UK organisation (24,000 globally). Weāll need a really big mirror.
Save the Children wasĀ founded by Eglantyne Jebb in London in 1919, after World War I. Weāre incredibly proud of what Eglantyne achieved. We wouldnāt exist without her boldness, her dream, her hard work. She wrote the world's very first declaration on child rights, which formed the basis of theĀ United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
We wouldnāt have been able to reach children across the world from our 120 country offices, help protect 166 million children from atrocities like conflict, the very real effects of the climate crisis, and Covid-19.
But take a step back again, a few hundred years before Eglantyne, a Briton, kicked off one of the worldās largest and most successful charities. If we Britons hadnāt already āvisitedā certain countries in the 16thĀ century and beyond, left our language and taken a few souvenirs, then perhaps we from the UK wouldnāt have needed to return, aid in hand, to help so many children.
Or perhaps itās not āperhapsā. Perhaps itās fact?
We know extreme political, economic, societal and geographical change, the kind a coloniser might bring (let alone slavery), is obviously a factor in child suffering. These changes propel poverty, hunger, disease and war like mad, to put it lightly. And the effects last centuries.
By 1913, 23% of the worldās population were under colonial rule and by 1920 the British Empire covered 24% of the worldās land. We cannot and should not try to untie Save the Childrenās 1919 birth to Britainās not-so-historical colonial and racist history.
What we should do is look directly at it.
Realise that as an old, UK-founded organisation we are part of both the problem and the solution. We intrinsically have a colonial mindset because we were founded in a country that brought chaos to a quarter of the world. But we can work to make sure it does truly become history one day.
So, after that quick reminder that bad things were done by the British Empire, letās look at the conversation around decolonisation, a word that we hear a lot these days but that we may each understand differently.
Decolonisation is the act of undoing colonialism ā not just when a country physically relieves its power over another country, but also undoing mindsets of racism, sexism, power, control, and the combination of all of these that live in British and European institutions and individuals. Or the idea that white, western people know how to fix another countryās issues more than the inhabitants of those countries do themselves. The āotheringā. The ātheysā and āthemsā over there.
At Save the Children UK we have aĀ diversity and inclusion strategy, as many other companies do, and we are regularly talking about white-saviourism and how to rid it from the organisation. Weāre beginning to understand that colonial mindsets have infiltrated not only the work we do and the way we interact with the world, but also internally in our organisationās structure.
We recognise it and weāre acting on it.
But what a deep shame that we ā Save the Children UK and most other western organisations ā only started driving this conversation further and being more open, more reflective, more active after George Floyd was killed in the US and the world finally realised there was a white supremacy monster within the police? Why was it only then that we, the charity sector, really stepped up?
We know we have a lot of work to do.
Hundreds and hundreds of yearsā worth.
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The process of colonization was a combination of voluntary integration into the Russian Empire and outright seizure. The Little Horde and part of the Middle Horde signed treaties of protection with Russia in the 1730s and 1740s. Major parts of the northeast and central Kazakh territories were incorporated into the Russian Empire by 1840. With the Russian seizure of territories belonging to the Senior Horde in the 1860s, the tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.
The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and Great Britain. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the Kazakh language and identity. There were uprisings against colonial rule during the final years of tsarist Russia, with the most serious occurring in 1916. The destruction of the nomadic life, prior to and during the Communist period, created a Kazakh diaspora in neighboring countries, especially western China. Since independence in 1991, the government has encouraged the return of ethnic Kazakhs by offering subsidies for returnees.
Although there was a brief period of autonomy during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within Russia and, in 1936, a Soviet republic.
Soviet repression of the traditional elites, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s-1930s, brought about mass hunger and led to unrest. Soviet rule, however, took hold, and a communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of thousands exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and later became home for hundreds of thousands evacuated from the Second World War battlefields. The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort.
The period of the Second World War marked an increase in industrialization and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Josif Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" program to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, sped up the development of the agricultural sector, which to this day remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population.
Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs took place in Almaty to protest the methods of the communist system. Soviet troops suppressed the unrest, and dozens of demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost. Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) in October 1990. Following the August 1991 abortive coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991.
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Ā @DaveZee823Ā What does John 8:32 mean?
The most enticing aspect of sin is the promise of freedom. Even from the first temptation, in the garden of Eden, man has assumed that defying God is a way to control his own destiny. In fact, the opposite is true. Nothing enslaves like sināit corrupts our thinking, controls our actions, and destroys our peace. Worst of all, it separates us from God (Colossians 1:21) and condemns us to an eternity of loneliness and shame (Matthew 8:12). Jesus, on the other hand, represents the truthāthat is, Himself. This is a theme Christ will return to often in His teaching (John 8:12;Ā 14:6). Nothing but truth can really free us.
Comforting lies are never as beneficial as loving truth. Even when the truth is not what we want to hear, we can't expect to make good decisions or correct choices when we're operating under the control of a lie. As Christ stated earlier in this dialogue, Heāaloneāis the "light of the world," the one and only means to apprehend truth. True freedom is found in forgiveness of sin and service to God, and this is only found when we accept Jesus
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Ā @DaveZee823Ā What does John 8:32 mean?
The most enticing aspect of sin is the promise of freedom. Even from the first temptation, in the garden of Eden, man has assumed that defying God is a way to control his own destiny. In fact, the opposite is true. Nothing enslaves like sināit corrupts our thinking, controls our actions, and destroys our peace. Worst of all, it separates us from God (Colossians 1:21) and condemns us to an eternity of loneliness and shame (Matthew 8:12). Jesus, on the other hand, represents the truthāthat is, Himself. This is a theme Christ will return to often in His teaching (John 8:12;Ā 14:6). Nothing but truth can really free us.
Comforting lies are never as beneficial as loving truth. Even when the truth is not what we want to hear, we can't expect to make good decisions or correct choices when we're operating under the control of a lie. As Christ stated earlier in this dialogue, Heāaloneāis the "light of the world," the one and only means to apprehend truth. True freedom is found in forgiveness of sin and service to God, and this is only found when we accept Jesus
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In 1993, the Oslo Accords were signed, but they didn't lead to a lasting peace in Palestine.Ā While the accords aimed to establish an interim framework for self-government, they ultimately fell short of a comprehensive resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.Ā Several factors contributed to this failure, including:Ā
1. Lack of a Clear Two-State Solution: The accords didn't explicitly define the goal of a two-state solution, leaving room for ambiguity about the future status of Palestine.Ā
2. Power Imbalance and US Intervention: The negotiation framework favored Israel, a powerful, nuclear-armed nation, over stateless Palestinians under occupation.Ā The U.S., a major backer of Israel, also failed to act as a neutral mediator.Ā
3. Israeli Expansion of Settlements: Israel continued to expand settlements in the West Bank, undermining any progress toward a land-based peace agreement and creating "facts on the ground".Ā
4. Violent Opposition: Right-wing Israeli extremists, who opposed any negotiations with the Palestinians, further undermined the peace process with acts of violence, including the assassination of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.Ā
5. Internal Palestinian Divisions: Groups like Hamas opposed the Oslo Accords and engaged in attacks against Israelis, further hindering the peace process.Ā
6. Lack of Regional Consensus: There wasn't a clear Arab consensus on linking regional issues like security and economics to the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations, allowing Israel to potentially gain what it wanted without making significant concessions.Ā
7. Failure to Address Key Issues: The accords failed to address critical issues like the status of East Jerusalem, the right of return for Palestinian refugees, and the ongoing issue of Palestinian sovereignty, leading to the continuation of the conflict.
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The Oslo Accords and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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Ā @peteremrysmarah3377Ā lets see if this comment will stand for something that should have happened in 1993.
The Abraham Accords
Share
Thanks to the great courage of the leaders of these three countries, we take a major stride toward a future in which people of all faiths and backgrounds live together in peace and prosperity.
Donald J. TrumpPresident of the United States
The Abraham Accords Declaration
ļæ¼
We, the undersigned, recognize the importance of maintaining and strengthening peace in the Middle East and around the world based on mutual understanding and coexistence, as well as respect for human dignity and freedom, including religious freedom.
We encourage efforts to promote interfaith and intercultural dialogue to advance a culture of peace among the three Abrahamic religions and all humanity.
We believe that the best way to address challenges is through cooperation and dialogue and that developing friendly relations among States advances the interests of lasting peace in the Middle East and around the world.
We seek tolerance and respect for every person in order to make this world a place where all can enjoy a life of dignity and hope, no matter their race, faith or ethnicity.
We support science, art, medicine, and commerce to inspire humankind, maximize human potential and bring nations closer together.
We seek to end radicalization and conflict to provide all children a better future.
We pursue a vision of peace, security, and prosperity in the Middle East and around the world.
In this spirit, we warmly welcome and are encouraged by the progress already made in establishing diplomatic relations between Israel and its neighbors in the region under the principles of the Abraham Accords. Ā We are encouraged by the ongoing efforts to consolidate and expand such friendly relations based on shared interests and a shared commitment to a better future.
Download:Ā DECLARATIONĀ [448 KB]Ā |Ā ISRAEL-BAHRAIN AGREEMENTĀ [649 KB]Ā |Ā Israel-Morocco AgreementĀ [221 KB]Ā |Ā Ā ISRAEL-UAE AGREEMENTĀ [4 MB]Ā |Ā SudanĀ [215 KB]
YouTube: A Historic Day for Peace
Abraham Accords ā Curated tweets by NEAPressOffice
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01Ā ofĀ 13
President Trump and The First Lady Participate in an Abraham Accords Signing Ceremony
President Donald J. Trump, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Bahrain Dr. Abdullatif bin Rashid Al-Zayani, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the United Arab Emirates Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyanisigns sign the Abraham Accords Tuesday, Sept. 15, 2020, on the South Lawn of the White House. (Official White House Photo by Tia Dufour)
Close
PreviousNext
WHITE HOUSE
President Donald J. Trump Has Brokered Peace Between Israel and the Kingdom of MoroccoĀ
Joint Statement of the United States, the Republic of Sudan, and the State of IsraelĀ
Joint Statement of the United States, the State of Israel, and the United Arab EmiratesĀ
President Donald J. Trump Has Secured a Historic Deal Between Israel and the United Arab Emirates to Advance Peace and Prosperity In the RegionĀ
President Donald J. Trump Has Brokered a Historic Deal Between Israel and the Kingdom of BahrainĀ
Remarks by President Trump on the Announcement of Normalization of Relations Between Israel and the Kingdom of BahrainĀ
President Donald J. Trump is Promoting Peace and Stability in the Middle EastĀ
Remarks by President Trump and Prime Minister Netanyahu of the State of Israel Before Bilateral MeetingĀ
Remarks by President Trump, Prime Minister Netanyahu, Minister bin Zayed, and Minister AlĀ Zayani at the Abraham Accords Signing CeremonyĀ
Abraham Accords: Declaration of Peace, Cooperation, and Constructive Diplomatic and Friendly RelationsĀ
The Abraham Accords DeclarationĀ
Abraham Accords Peace Agreement: Treaty of Peace, Diplomatic Relations and Full Normalization Between the United Arab Emirates and the State of IsraelĀ
Ā
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
On Progress Toward Peace
Memorandum of Understanding on Anti-Semitism
Historic Day for Peace in the Middle East
Press Briefing on United Arab Emirates-Israel Relations with Senior Advisor Jared Kushner
Historic Agreement Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
Ā
U.S. EMBASSY JERUSALEM
U.S., Israel, UAE Announce Establishment of Abraham Fund Following Accords Commitment
Joint Statement of the United States, the State of Israel, and the United Arab Emirates
Historic Day for Peace in the Middle East
The first direct El-Al flight to the United Arab Emirates departs Ben Gurion Airport today
Joint Statement of the United States, the Kingdom of Bahrain, and the State of Israel
Remarks by President Trump on the Announcement of Normalization of Relations between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
Historic Agreement Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
President Trump and First Lady participate in the Abraham Accords signing ceremony
Ā
U.S. EMBASSY ABU DHABI
Historic Agreement Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
President Trump Announces Historic Agreement to Normalize Relations Between the UAE and Israel
The United States, Israel, and the United Arab Emirates Make Historic Joint StatementĀ
Ā
U.S. EMBASSY MANAMA
Joint Statement of the United States, the Kingdom of Bahrain, and the State of Israel
Historic Agreement Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
President Donald J. Trump Has Brokered a Historic Deal Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
President Donald J. Trump Has Secured a Historic Deal Between Israel and the United Arab Emirates to Advance Peace and Prosperity In the Region
Joint Statement of the United States, the State of Israel, and the United Arab Emirates
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Ā @seankingslandĀ have a look at that that's savage and Israel and Palestine should have had peace in 1993 untill yathzik Rabin got assisnated
Ā @peteremrysmarah3377Ā lets see if this comment will stand for something that should have happened in 1993.
The Abraham Accords
Share
Thanks to the great courage of the leaders of these three countries, we take a major stride toward a future in which people of all faiths and backgrounds live together in peace and prosperity.
Donald J. TrumpPresident of the United States
The Abraham Accords Declaration
ļæ¼
We, the undersigned, recognize the importance of maintaining and strengthening peace in the Middle East and around the world based on mutual understanding and coexistence, as well as respect for human dignity and freedom, including religious freedom.
We encourage efforts to promote interfaith and intercultural dialogue to advance a culture of peace among the three Abrahamic religions and all humanity.
We believe that the best way to address challenges is through cooperation and dialogue and that developing friendly relations among States advances the interests of lasting peace in the Middle East and around the world.
We seek tolerance and respect for every person in order to make this world a place where all can enjoy a life of dignity and hope, no matter their race, faith or ethnicity.
We support science, art, medicine, and commerce to inspire humankind, maximize human potential and bring nations closer together.
We seek to end radicalization and conflict to provide all children a better future.
We pursue a vision of peace, security, and prosperity in the Middle East and around the world.
In this spirit, we warmly welcome and are encouraged by the progress already made in establishing diplomatic relations between Israel and its neighbors in the region under the principles of the Abraham Accords. Ā We are encouraged by the ongoing efforts to consolidate and expand such friendly relations based on shared interests and a shared commitment to a better future.
Download:Ā DECLARATIONĀ [448 KB]Ā |Ā ISRAEL-BAHRAIN AGREEMENTĀ [649 KB]Ā |Ā Israel-Morocco AgreementĀ [221 KB]Ā |Ā Ā ISRAEL-UAE AGREEMENTĀ [4 MB]Ā |Ā SudanĀ [215 KB]
YouTube: A Historic Day for Peace
Abraham Accords ā Curated tweets by NEAPressOffice
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01Ā ofĀ 13
President Trump and The First Lady Participate in an Abraham Accords Signing Ceremony
President Donald J. Trump, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Bahrain Dr. Abdullatif bin Rashid Al-Zayani, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the United Arab Emirates Abdullah bin Zayed Al Nahyanisigns sign the Abraham Accords Tuesday, Sept. 15, 2020, on the South Lawn of the White House. (Official White House Photo by Tia Dufour)
Close
PreviousNext
WHITE HOUSE
President Donald J. Trump Has Brokered Peace Between Israel and the Kingdom of MoroccoĀ
Joint Statement of the United States, the Republic of Sudan, and the State of IsraelĀ
Joint Statement of the United States, the State of Israel, and the United Arab EmiratesĀ
President Donald J. Trump Has Secured a Historic Deal Between Israel and the United Arab Emirates to Advance Peace and Prosperity In the RegionĀ
President Donald J. Trump Has Brokered a Historic Deal Between Israel and the Kingdom of BahrainĀ
Remarks by President Trump on the Announcement of Normalization of Relations Between Israel and the Kingdom of BahrainĀ
President Donald J. Trump is Promoting Peace and Stability in the Middle EastĀ
Remarks by President Trump and Prime Minister Netanyahu of the State of Israel Before Bilateral MeetingĀ
Remarks by President Trump, Prime Minister Netanyahu, Minister bin Zayed, and Minister AlĀ Zayani at the Abraham Accords Signing CeremonyĀ
Abraham Accords: Declaration of Peace, Cooperation, and Constructive Diplomatic and Friendly RelationsĀ
The Abraham Accords DeclarationĀ
Abraham Accords Peace Agreement: Treaty of Peace, Diplomatic Relations and Full Normalization Between the United Arab Emirates and the State of IsraelĀ
Ā
DEPARTMENT OF STATE
On Progress Toward Peace
Memorandum of Understanding on Anti-Semitism
Historic Day for Peace in the Middle East
Press Briefing on United Arab Emirates-Israel Relations with Senior Advisor Jared Kushner
Historic Agreement Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
Ā
U.S. EMBASSY JERUSALEM
U.S., Israel, UAE Announce Establishment of Abraham Fund Following Accords Commitment
Joint Statement of the United States, the State of Israel, and the United Arab Emirates
Historic Day for Peace in the Middle East
The first direct El-Al flight to the United Arab Emirates departs Ben Gurion Airport today
Joint Statement of the United States, the Kingdom of Bahrain, and the State of Israel
Remarks by President Trump on the Announcement of Normalization of Relations between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
Historic Agreement Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
President Trump and First Lady participate in the Abraham Accords signing ceremony
Ā
U.S. EMBASSY ABU DHABI
Historic Agreement Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
President Trump Announces Historic Agreement to Normalize Relations Between the UAE and Israel
The United States, Israel, and the United Arab Emirates Make Historic Joint StatementĀ
Ā
U.S. EMBASSY MANAMA
Joint Statement of the United States, the Kingdom of Bahrain, and the State of Israel
Historic Agreement Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
President Donald J. Trump Has Brokered a Historic Deal Between Israel and the Kingdom of Bahrain
President Donald J. Trump Has Secured a Historic Deal Between Israel and the United Arab Emirates to Advance Peace and Prosperity In the Region
Joint Statement of the United States, the State of Israel, and the United Arab Emirates
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The Romanian state was formed in 1859 through aĀ personal unionĀ of theĀ Danubian PrincipalitiesĀ ofĀ MoldaviaĀ andĀ Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from theĀ Ottoman EmpireĀ in 1877. DuringĀ World War I, after declaring itsĀ neutralityĀ in 1914, RomaniaĀ foughtĀ together with theĀ Allied PowersĀ from 1916. In the aftermath of the war,Ā Bukovina,Ā Bessarabia,Ā Transylvania, and parts ofĀ Banat,Ā CriČana, andĀ MaramureČĀ became part of theĀ Kingdom of Romania.[1]Ā In JuneāAugustĀ 1940, as a consequence of theĀ MolotovāRibbentrop PactĀ andĀ Second Vienna Award, Romania was compelled to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to theĀ Soviet UnionĀ andĀ Northern TransylvaniaĀ to Hungary. In NovemberĀ 1940, Romania signed theĀ Tripartite PactĀ and, consequently, in JuneĀ 1941 enteredĀ World War IIĀ on theĀ Axis side,Ā fighting against the Soviet UnionĀ until AugustĀ 1944, when itĀ joinedĀ theĀ AlliesĀ and recovered Northern Transylvania.
Following the war and occupation by theĀ Red Army, Romania became aĀ socialist republicĀ and a member of theĀ Warsaw Pact. After theĀ 1989Ā Revolution, RomaniaĀ began a transitionĀ towardsĀ democracyĀ and aĀ market economy.
Why the European union will never work.
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Why people in Europe and the UK want to bury our history and throw it against us today us disgusting so pkeas delete all you want we even helped create the united nations in the UK and decoloniserd our empires to create our own problems today is someone having a big joke with us in Europe today.
Decolonization
When the United Nations was founded in 1945, some 750 million people, nearly a third of the world's population, lived in Territories that were dependent on colonial Powers. Today, there are Ā 17 Non-Self-Governing TerritoriesĀ remaining and fewer than 2 million people live in them. The wave of decolonization, which changed the face of the planet, was born with the UN and represents the world bodyās first great success.
As a result of decolonization many Territories became independent and joined the UN.
The international trusteeship system was established by theĀ UN Charter. Affirming the principle of self-determination, the Charter describes the responsibility of States for territories under their administration as āa sacred trustā in which the interests of their inhabitants are paramount
Trusteeship Council
The Charter also created theĀ Trusteeship CouncilĀ as a main organ of the UN. It was to monitor the situation in 11 specific āTrust Territoriesā which were subject to separate agreements with administering States. These territories had been formally administered under mandates from theĀ League of Nations, or separated from countries defeated in the Second World War, or voluntarily placed under the system by their administering Power.Ā Eleven TerritoriesĀ were placed under this system
All 11 territories that were once under the United Nations Trusteeship have either become independent states or have voluntarily joined neighboring independent countries. The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (Palau), which was administered by the United States, was the last territory to become independent in 1994. This happened after a plebiscite in 1993, through which Palau chose to have a free association with the United States. The island country became the 185th member state of the United Nations after it gained independence.
The Trusteeship Council, which had no more territories to administer, suspended its operations on November 1, 1994. The Trusteeship Council still exists as an organ of the United Nations and meets when necessary
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Ā @johnfinbarrryan4240Ā English Standard VersionĀ ParĀ ā¾Ā
The Sermon on the Mount
1Seeing the crowds, he went up on the mountain, and when he sat down, his disciples came to him.
The Beatitudes
2And he opened his mouth and taught them, saying:
3āBlessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
4āBlessed are those who mourn, for they shall be comforted.
5āBlessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.
6āBlessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they shall be satisfied.
7āBlessed are the merciful, for they shall receive mercy.
8āBlessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.
9āBlessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called sonsaĀ of God.
10āBlessed are those who are persecuted for righteousnessā sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
11āBlessed are you when others revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account.Ā 12Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for so they persecuted the prophets who were before you.
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Ā @danielgyte8460Ā this is from the government American British mandated ended in 1948 ans did french mandated Syria and Lebanon . We had already given nations independence there to many nations to establish them those after 1948 where very little to do with us even though some where remember we gave America independence in 1776 a nation that does stem from 13 British/European and settlements there
On May 14, 1948,Ā David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel. U.S. PresidentĀ Harry S. TrumanĀ recognized the new nation on the same day.
Although the United States supported the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which favored the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine, PresidentĀ Franklin D. RooseveltĀ had assured the Arabs in 1945 that the United States would not intervene without consulting both the Jews and the Arabs in that region. The British, who held a colonial mandate for Palestine until May 1948, opposed both the creation of a Jewish state and an Arab state in Palestine as well as unlimited immigration of Jewish refugees to the region. Great Britain wanted to preserve good relations with the Arabs to protect its vital political and economic interests in Palestine.
Soon after President Truman took office, he appointed several experts to study the Palestinian issue. In the summer of 1946, Truman established a special cabinet committee under the chairmanship of Dr.Ā Henry F. Grady, an Assistant Secretary of State, who entered into negotiations with a parallel British committee to discuss the future of Palestine. In May 1946, Truman announced his approval of a recommendation to admit 100,000 displaced persons into Palestine and in October publicly declared his support for the creation of a Jewish state. Throughout 1947, the United Nations Special Commission on Palestine examined the Palestinian question and recommended the partition of Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state. On November 29, 1947 the United Nations adopted Resolution 181 (also known as the Partition Resolution) that would divide Great Britainās former Palestinian mandate into Jewish and Arab states in May 1948 when the British mandate was scheduled to end. Under the resolution, the area of religious significance surrounding Jerusalem would remain a corpus separatum under international control administered by the United Nations.
Although the United States backed Resolution 181, the U.S. Department of State recommended the creation of a United Nations trusteeship with limits on Jewish immigration and a division of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab provinces but not states. The State Department, concerned about the possibility of an increasing Soviet role in the Arab world and the potential for restriction by Arab oil producing nations of oil supplies to the United States, advised against U.S. intervention on behalf of the Jews. Later, as the date for British departure from Palestine drew near, the Department of State grew concerned about the possibility of an all-out war in Palestine as Arab states threatened to attack almost as soon as the UN passed the partition resolution.
Despite growing conflict between Palestinian Arabs and Palestinian Jews and despite the Department of Stateās endorsement of a trusteeship, Truman ultimately decided to recognize the state Israel.
..
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@danielgyte8460Ā this is from the American government British mandated ended in 1948 ans did french mandated Syria and Lebanon . We had already given nations independence there to many nations to establish them those after 1948 where very little to do with us even though some where remember we gave America independence in 1776 a nation that does stem from 13 British/European and settlements there
On May 14, 1948,Ā David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel. U.S. PresidentĀ Harry S. TrumanĀ recognized the new nation on the same day.
Although the United States supported the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which favored the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine, PresidentĀ Franklin D. RooseveltĀ had assured the Arabs in 1945 that the United States would not intervene without consulting both the Jews and the Arabs in that region. The British, who held a colonial mandate for Palestine until May 1948, opposed both the creation of a Jewish state and an Arab state in Palestine as well as unlimited immigration of Jewish refugees to the region. Great Britain wanted to preserve good relations with the Arabs to protect its vital political and economic interests in Palestine.
Soon after President Truman took office, he appointed several experts to study the Palestinian issue. In the summer of 1946, Truman established a special cabinet committee under the chairmanship of Dr.Ā Henry F. Grady, an Assistant Secretary of State, who entered into negotiations with a parallel British committee to discuss the future of Palestine. In May 1946, Truman announced his approval of a recommendation to admit 100,000 displaced persons into Palestine and in October publicly declared his support for the creation of a Jewish state. Throughout 1947, the United Nations Special Commission on Palestine examined the Palestinian question and recommended the partition of Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state. On November 29, 1947 the United Nations adopted Resolution 181 (also known as the Partition Resolution) that would divide Great Britainās former Palestinian mandate into Jewish and Arab states in May 1948 when the British mandate was scheduled to end. Under the resolution, the area of religious significance surrounding Jerusalem would remain a corpus separatum under international control administered by the United Nations.
Although the United States backed Resolution 181, the U.S. Department of State recommended the creation of a United Nations trusteeship with limits on Jewish immigration and a division of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab provinces but not states. The State Department, concerned about the possibility of an increasing Soviet role in the Arab world and the potential for restriction by Arab oil producing nations of oil supplies to the United States, advised against U.S. intervention on behalf of the Jews. Later, as the date for British departure from Palestine drew near, the Department of State grew concerned about the possibility of an all-out war in Palestine as Arab states threatened to attack almost as soon as the UN passed the partition resolution.
Despite growing conflict between Palestinian Arabs and Palestinian Jews and despite the Department of Stateās endorsement of a trusteeship, Truman ultimately decided to recognize the state Israel.
..
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TheĀ IsraeliāLebanese conflict, or theĀ South Lebanon conflict,[4]Ā is a series of military clashes involvingĀ Israel,Ā LebanonĀ andĀ Syria, theĀ Palestine Liberation Organization, as well as variousĀ militiasĀ andĀ militantsĀ acting from within Lebanon. The conflict peaked in the 1980s, during theĀ Lebanese Civil War, and has abated since.
TheĀ Palestine Liberation OrganizationĀ (PLO) recruited militants in Lebanon from among theĀ Palestinian refugeesĀ who had been expelled or fled after the creation of Israel in 1948.[11][12]Ā After the PLO leadership and itsĀ FatahĀ brigade wereĀ expelled from JordanĀ in 1970ā71 for fomenting a revolt, they entered Southern Lebanon, resulting in an increase of internal and cross-border violence. Meanwhile,Ā demographic tensionsĀ over the LebaneseĀ National PactĀ led to theĀ Lebanese Civil WarĀ (1975ā1990).[13]Ā PLO actions were one of the key factors in the eruption of the Lebanese Civil War and its bitter battles with Lebanese factions caused foreign intervention. Israel'sĀ 1978 invasion of LebanonĀ pushed the PLO north of theĀ Litani River, but the PLO continued their campaign against Israel.Ā Israel invaded LebanonĀ again in 1982 in alliance with the major Lebanese Christian militias of theĀ Lebanese ForcesĀ andĀ Kataeb PartyĀ and forcibly expelled the PLO. In 1983, Israel and Lebanon signed theĀ May 17 AgreementĀ providing a framework for the establishment of normal bilateral relations between the two countries, but relations were disrupted withĀ takeover of Shia and Druze militiasĀ in early 1984. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1985, but kept control of a 19-kilometre (12-mile)[14]Ā security buffer zone, held with the aid of proxy militants in theĀ South Lebanon ArmyĀ (SLA).
In 1985,Ā Hezbollah, a LebaneseĀ ShiaĀ radical movement sponsored byĀ Iran,[15]Ā called for armed struggle to end the Israeli occupation of Lebanese territory.[16]Ā When the Lebanese civil war ended and other warring factions agreed to disarm, Hezbollah and the SLA refused. Combat with Hezbollah weakened Israeli resolve and led to a collapse of the SLA and an Israeli withdrawal in 2000 to their side of theĀ UN designated border.[17]
Citing Israeli control of theĀ Shebaa farmsĀ territory, Hezbollah continued cross-border attacks intermittently over the next six years. Hezbollah now sought the release ofĀ Lebanese citizens in Israeli prisonsĀ and successfully used the tactic of capturing Israeli soldiers as leverage for aĀ prisoner exchangeĀ in 2004.[18][19]Ā The capturing of two Israeli soldiers by Hezbollah ignited theĀ 2006 Lebanon War.[20]Ā ItsĀ ceasefireĀ called for the disarmament of Hezbollah and the respecting of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Lebanon by Israel.
Hostilities were suspended on 8 September 2006. As of early 2023, the situation remained calm, despite both sides violating the ceasefire agreements; Israel by making near-daily flights over Lebanese territory, and Hezbollah by not disarming. But an increase in violence during theĀ April 2023 IsraelāLebanon shellings, the spillover of theĀ 2023 IsraelāHamas war, and theĀ 2023 IsraelāLebanon border conflictĀ has led to fears of another war and the beginning of a conflict between milliants and Israel.[21]
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Ā @trusttheprocess5618Ā TheĀ assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, the fifthĀ prime minister of Israel, took place on 4 November 1995 (12Ā MarcheshvanĀ 5756 on theĀ Hebrew calendar) at 21:30, at the end of aĀ rallyĀ in support of theĀ Oslo AccordsĀ at theĀ Kings of Israel SquareĀ inĀ Tel Aviv. The assailant wasĀ Yigal Amir, an Israeli law student andĀ ultranationalistĀ who radically opposed prime ministerĀ Yitzhak Rabin's peace initiative, particularly the signing of the Oslo Accords.
The assassination ofĀ Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ came immediately after an anti-violence rally in support of theĀ Oslo peace process.[1]
Before the rally, Rabin was disparaged personally by right-wing conservatives andĀ LikudĀ leaders who perceived the peace process as an attempt to forfeit theĀ occupied territoriesĀ and a capitulation to Israel's enemies.[2][3]
National religious conservatives and Likud party leaders believed that withdrawing from any "Jewish" land wasĀ heresy.[4]Ā The Likud leader and future prime minister,Ā Benjamin Netanyahu, accused Rabin's government of being "removed from Jewish tradition [...] and Jewish values".[2][3]Ā Right-wing rabbis associated with the settlers' movement prohibited territorial concessions to the Palestinians and forbade soldiers in theĀ Israel Defense ForcesĀ from evacuating Jewish settlers under the accords.[5][6]Ā Some rabbis proclaimedĀ din rodef, based on a traditional Jewish law of self-defense, against Rabin personally, arguing that the Oslo Accords would endanger Jewish lives.[5][7]
Rallies organized by Likud and other right-wing groups featured depictions of Rabin in a NaziĀ SSĀ uniform, or in the crosshairs of a gun.[2][3]Ā Protesters compared the Labor party to the Nazis and Rabin toĀ Adolf Hitler[5]Ā and chanted, "Rabin is a murderer" and "Rabin is a traitor".[8][9]Ā In July 1995, Netanyahu led a mock funeral procession featuring a coffin and hangman's noose at an anti-Rabin rally where protesters chanted, "Death to Rabin".[10][11]Ā The chief of internal security,Ā Carmi Gillon, then alerted Netanyahu of a plot on Rabin's life and asked him to moderate the protests' rhetoric, which Netanyahu declined to do.[8][12]Ā Netanyahu denied any intention to incite violence.[2][3][13]
Rabin dismissed such protests or labeled themĀ chutzpah.[2]Ā According to Gillon, Rabin refused his requests to wear a bulletproof vest and preferred not to use the armored car purchased for him.[14]Ā Left-wing supporters organized pro-peace rallies in support of the Oslo Accords. It was after one such gathering in Tel Aviv that the assassination took place.[3].
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This is a chronology and timeline of theĀ European colonization of the Americas, with founding dates of selected European settlements.[1][2][3]
PreāColumbus
edit
986:Ā NorsemenĀ settleĀ GreenlandĀ andĀ Bjarni HerjĆ³lfssonĀ sights coast of North America, but doesn't land (see alsoĀ Norse colonization of the Americas).
c.ā1000: Norse settle briefly inĀ L'Anse aux MeadowsĀ in Newfoundland.[4]
c.ā1450: Norse colony in Greenland dies out.
15th century
edit
1491:Ā ColumbusĀ sets sailĀ aboard the NiƱa, Pinta, and Santa Maria.
1492: Columbus reaches theĀ Bahamas,[5]Ā CubaĀ andĀ Hispaniola.
1492:Ā La NavidadĀ is established on the island of Hispaniola; it was destroyed by the following year.
1493: The colony ofĀ La IsabelaĀ is established on the island of Hispaniola.[6]
1493: Columbus arrives inĀ Puerto Rico
1494: Columbus arrives inĀ Jamaica.
1496:Ā Santo Domingo, the first European permanent settlement, is built.[7]
1497:Ā John CabotĀ reachesĀ Newfoundland.[8]
1498: In his third voyage, Columbus reachesĀ Trinidad and Tobago.
1498: La Isabela is abandoned by the Spanish.
1499:Ā JoĆ£o Fernandes LavradorĀ mapsĀ LabradorĀ and Newfoundland
16th century
edit
1501:Ā Corte-RealĀ brothers explore the coast of what is today the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador
1502: Columbus sails along the mainland coast south of YucatĆ”n, and reaches present-dayĀ Honduras,Ā Nicaragua,Ā Costa RicaĀ andĀ Panama
1503:Ā Las TortugasĀ noted by Columbus in passage through the Western Caribbean present-dayĀ Cayman Islands
1508:Ā Ponce de LeĆ³nĀ foundsĀ CaparraĀ on San Juan Bautista (now Puerto Rico)
1511: Conquest of Cuba begins
1513:Ā Ponce de LeĆ³nĀ in Florida
1513:Ā NĆŗƱez de BalboaĀ claims theĀ Pacific OceanĀ and its shores for Spain
1515: Conquest of Cuba completed
1517:Ā Francisco HernĆ”ndez de CĆ³rdobaĀ lands on theĀ YucatĆ”n Peninsula
1519: Founding of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (Veracruz)
1519:Ā Ćlvarez de PinedaĀ explores theĀ Gulf Coast of the United States
1519: Founding ofĀ Panama CityĀ by Pedro Arias DĆ”vila
1521:Ā HernĆ”n CortĆ©sĀ completes the conquest of the Aztec Empire.
1521:Ā Juan Ponce de LeĆ³nĀ tries and fails to settle in Florida.
1524:Ā Pedro de AlvaradoĀ conquers present-dayĀ GuatemalaĀ andĀ El Salvador.
1524:Ā Giovanni da VerrazzanoĀ sails along most of the east coast.
1525:Ā EstĆŖvĆ£o GomesĀ entersĀ Upper New York BayĀ and reachesĀ Nova Scotia[9][10]
1526:Ā Lucas VĆ”zquez de AyllĆ³nĀ briefly establishes the failed settlement ofĀ San Miguel de GualdapeĀ in South Carolina, the first site of enslavement of Africans in North America and of the firstĀ slave rebellion.
1527: Fishermen are using the harbor atĀ St. John's, NewfoundlandĀ and other places on the coast.
1531: Spanish foundĀ Puebla de ZaragozaĀ andĀ Santiago de QuerĆ©taro.
1535:Ā Jacques CartierĀ reaches Quebec.
1536:Ā Cabeza de VacaĀ reaches Mexico City after wandering through North America.
1538: FailedĀ HuguenotĀ settlement onĀ St. KittsĀ in the Caribbean (destroyed by the Spanish).
1539:Ā Hernando de SotoĀ explores the interior from Florida to Arkansas.
1539:Ā Francisco de UlloaĀ explores theĀ Baja California peninsula.
1540:Ā CoronadoĀ travels from Mexico to eastern Kansas.
1541: Spanish foundĀ Nueva Ciudad de MechuacĆ”nĀ (Morelia)
1540:Ā LĆ³pez de CĆ”rdenasĀ reaches theĀ Grand CanyonĀ (the area is ignored for the next 200 years).
1541: Failed French settlement atĀ Charlesbourg-RoyalĀ (Quebec City) by Cartier and Roberval.
1542:Ā Juan Rodriguez CabrilloĀ reaches the California coast.
1559: Failed Spanish settlement atĀ Pensacola, Florida.
1562: Failed Huguenot settlement in South Carolina (Charlesfort-Santa Elena site).
1564: French Huguenots at Jacksonville, Florida (Fort Caroline).
1565: Spanish slaughter French 'heretics' at Fort Caroline.
1565: Spanish foundĀ Saint Augustine, Florida. (Mission Nombre de Dios)
1566ā1587: Spanish in South Carolina (Charlesfort-Santa Elena site).
1568:Ā Dutch revoltĀ against Spain begins. The economic model developed in the Netherlands would define colonial policies in the next two centuries.
1570: Failed Spanish settlement on Chesapeake Bay (AjacƔn Mission).
1576: Spanish foundĀ LeĆ³n de los Aldama.
1576:Ā Martin FrobisherĀ reaches the coast of Labrador and Baffin Island.
1579:Ā Sir Francis DrakeĀ claimsĀ New Albion.
1583: England formally claims Newfoundland (Humphrey Gilbert).
1585:Ā Roanoke ColonyĀ founded by English on Roanoke Island, North Carolina, failed in 1587
1598: Failed French settlement onĀ Sable IslandĀ off Nova Scotia.
1598: Spanish settlement inĀ Northern New Mexico.
1600: By 1600 Spain and Portugal were still the only significant colonial powers. North of Mexico the only settlements were Saint Augustine and the isolated outpost in northern New Mexico. Exploration of the interior was largely abandoned after the 1540s. Around Newfoundland 500 or more boats annually were fishing for cod and some fishermen were trading for furs, especially at Tadoussac on the Saint Lawrence.
17th century
18th century
edit
1701:Ā DetroitĀ ā French
1702:Ā MobileĀ ā French
1706:Ā AlbuquerqueĀ ā Spanish
1711: Beaufort, South Carolina - English
1714:Ā NatchitochesĀ ā French
1714:Ā Germanna, Virginia ā Germans from Hessen-Nassau
1716:Ā NatchezĀ ā French
1717:Ā Germanna, Virginia ā Germans from Baden-WĆ¼rttemberg
1718: New Orleans ā French
1718:Ā San AntonioĀ ā Spanish
1721:Ā Germanna, Virginia ā Germans
1721: Greenland ā Danish
1729: George Town, South Carolina - English and French Huguenots
1729:Ā BaltimoreĀ ā British
1733:Ā Province of GeorgiaĀ ā British
1734: Culpeper, Virginia ā Germans
1738: Culpeper, Virginia; some to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania ā Germans
1741:Ā GuanajuatoĀ ā Spanish
1763: St. Louis (Missouri) ā French
1769:Ā San DiegoĀ ā Spanish
1770:Ā MontereyĀ ā Spanish
1775:Ā TucsonĀ ā Spanish
1776:Ā San FranciscoĀ ā Spanish
1777:Ā San JoseĀ ā Spanish
1781:Ā Los AngelesĀ ā Spanish
1784:Ā Kodiak IslandĀ ā Russian
1791:Ā Santa CruzĀ ā Spanish
1
-
This is a chronology and timeline of theĀ European colonization of the Americas, with founding dates of selected European settlements.[1][2][3]
PreāColumbus
edit
986:Ā NorsemenĀ settleĀ GreenlandĀ andĀ Bjarni HerjĆ³lfssonĀ sights coast of North America, but doesn't land (see alsoĀ Norse colonization of the Americas).
c.ā1000: Norse settle briefly inĀ L'Anse aux MeadowsĀ in Newfoundland.[4]
c.ā1450: Norse colony in Greenland dies out.
15th century
edit
1491:Ā ColumbusĀ sets sailĀ aboard the NiƱa, Pinta, and Santa Maria.
1492: Columbus reaches theĀ Bahamas,[5]Ā CubaĀ andĀ Hispaniola.
1492:Ā La NavidadĀ is established on the island of Hispaniola; it was destroyed by the following year.
1493: The colony ofĀ La IsabelaĀ is established on the island of Hispaniola.[6]
1493: Columbus arrives inĀ Puerto Rico
1494: Columbus arrives inĀ Jamaica.
1496:Ā Santo Domingo, the first European permanent settlement, is built.[7]
1497:Ā John CabotĀ reachesĀ Newfoundland.[8]
1498: In his third voyage, Columbus reachesĀ Trinidad and Tobago.
1498: La Isabela is abandoned by the Spanish.
1499:Ā JoĆ£o Fernandes LavradorĀ mapsĀ LabradorĀ and Newfoundland
16th century
edit
1501:Ā Corte-RealĀ brothers explore the coast of what is today the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador
1502: Columbus sails along the mainland coast south of YucatĆ”n, and reaches present-dayĀ Honduras,Ā Nicaragua,Ā Costa RicaĀ andĀ Panama
1503:Ā Las TortugasĀ noted by Columbus in passage through the Western Caribbean present-dayĀ Cayman Islands
1508:Ā Ponce de LeĆ³nĀ foundsĀ CaparraĀ on San Juan Bautista (now Puerto Rico)
1511: Conquest of Cuba begins
1513:Ā Ponce de LeĆ³nĀ in Florida
1513:Ā NĆŗƱez de BalboaĀ claims theĀ Pacific OceanĀ and its shores for Spain
1515: Conquest of Cuba completed
1517:Ā Francisco HernĆ”ndez de CĆ³rdobaĀ lands on theĀ YucatĆ”n Peninsula
1519: Founding of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (Veracruz)
1519:Ā Ćlvarez de PinedaĀ explores theĀ Gulf Coast of the United States
1519: Founding ofĀ Panama CityĀ by Pedro Arias DĆ”vila
1521:Ā HernĆ”n CortĆ©sĀ completes the conquest of the Aztec Empire.
1521:Ā Juan Ponce de LeĆ³nĀ tries and fails to settle in Florida.
1524:Ā Pedro de AlvaradoĀ conquers present-dayĀ GuatemalaĀ andĀ El Salvador.
1524:Ā Giovanni da VerrazzanoĀ sails along most of the east coast.
1525:Ā EstĆŖvĆ£o GomesĀ entersĀ Upper New York BayĀ and reachesĀ Nova Scotia[9][10]
1526:Ā Lucas VĆ”zquez de AyllĆ³nĀ briefly establishes the failed settlement ofĀ San Miguel de GualdapeĀ in South Carolina, the first site of enslavement of Africans in North America and of the firstĀ slave rebellion.
1527: Fishermen are using the harbor atĀ St. John's, NewfoundlandĀ and other places on the coast.
1531: Spanish foundĀ Puebla de ZaragozaĀ andĀ Santiago de QuerĆ©taro.
1535:Ā Jacques CartierĀ reaches Quebec.
1536:Ā Cabeza de VacaĀ reaches Mexico City after wandering through North America.
1538: FailedĀ HuguenotĀ settlement onĀ St. KittsĀ in the Caribbean (destroyed by the Spanish).
1539:Ā Hernando de SotoĀ explores the interior from Florida to Arkansas.
1539:Ā Francisco de UlloaĀ explores theĀ Baja California peninsula.
1540:Ā CoronadoĀ travels from Mexico to eastern Kansas.
1541: Spanish foundĀ Nueva Ciudad de MechuacĆ”nĀ (Morelia)
1540:Ā LĆ³pez de CĆ”rdenasĀ reaches theĀ Grand CanyonĀ (the area is ignored for the next 200 years).
1541: Failed French settlement atĀ Charlesbourg-RoyalĀ (Quebec City) by Cartier and Roberval.
1542:Ā Juan Rodriguez CabrilloĀ reaches the California coast.
1559: Failed Spanish settlement atĀ Pensacola, Florida.
1562: Failed Huguenot settlement in South Carolina (Charlesfort-Santa Elena site).
1564: French Huguenots at Jacksonville, Florida (Fort Caroline).
1565: Spanish slaughter French 'heretics' at Fort Caroline.
1565: Spanish foundĀ Saint Augustine, Florida. (Mission Nombre de Dios)
1566ā1587: Spanish in South Carolina (Charlesfort-Santa Elena site).
1568:Ā Dutch revoltĀ against Spain begins. The economic model developed in the Netherlands would define colonial policies in the next two centuries.
1570: Failed Spanish settlement on Chesapeake Bay (AjacƔn Mission).
1576: Spanish foundĀ LeĆ³n de los Aldama.
1576:Ā Martin FrobisherĀ reaches the coast of Labrador and Baffin Island.
1579:Ā Sir Francis DrakeĀ claimsĀ New Albion.
1583: England formally claims Newfoundland (Humphrey Gilbert).
1585:Ā Roanoke ColonyĀ founded by English on Roanoke Island, North Carolina, failed in 1587
1598: Failed French settlement onĀ Sable IslandĀ off Nova Scotia.
1598: Spanish settlement inĀ Northern New Mexico.
1600: By 1600 Spain and Portugal were still the only significant colonial powers. North of Mexico the only settlements were Saint Augustine and the isolated outpost in northern New Mexico. Exploration of the interior was largely abandoned after the 1540s. Around Newfoundland 500 or more boats annually were fishing for cod and some fishermen were trading for furs, especially at Tadoussac on the Saint Lawrence.
17th century
18th century
edit
1701:Ā DetroitĀ ā French
1702:Ā MobileĀ ā French
1706:Ā AlbuquerqueĀ ā Spanish
1711: Beaufort, South Carolina - English
1714:Ā NatchitochesĀ ā French
1714:Ā Germanna, Virginia ā Germans from Hessen-Nassau
1716:Ā NatchezĀ ā French
1717:Ā Germanna, Virginia ā Germans from Baden-WĆ¼rttemberg
1718: New Orleans ā French
1718:Ā San AntonioĀ ā Spanish
1721:Ā Germanna, Virginia ā Germans
1721: Greenland ā Danish
1729: George Town, South Carolina - English and French Huguenots
1729:Ā BaltimoreĀ ā British
1733:Ā Province of GeorgiaĀ ā British
1734: Culpeper, Virginia ā Germans
1738: Culpeper, Virginia; some to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania ā Germans
1741:Ā GuanajuatoĀ ā Spanish
1763: St. Louis (Missouri) ā French
1769:Ā San DiegoĀ ā Spanish
1770:Ā MontereyĀ ā Spanish
1775:Ā TucsonĀ ā Spanish
1776:Ā San FranciscoĀ ā Spanish
1777:Ā San JoseĀ ā Spanish
1781:Ā Los AngelesĀ ā Spanish
1784:Ā Kodiak IslandĀ ā Russian
1791:Ā Santa CruzĀ ā Spanish
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Ā @rynonymoussĀ I have been trying to talk about this since I was a child no one else wants to that's the trouble with Europe over the last 100 years not our empires here but what they turned into .
And migration to telling people about the British commonwealth and then people who came here after ww2 should have been introduced as British.
They spend so much time on worrying about the past that it will come back they are even happy to destroy what was working in Europe now and what Europe turned into 30 years ago to achieve that and create a future youngsters apart from climate shouldn't be growing up with they are.
United Nations and decolonization
When the United Nations was established in 1945, 750 million people - almost a third of the world's population then - lived in Territories that were non-self-governing, dependent on colonial Powers.Ā
Since then, more thanĀ 80 former colonies have gained their independence. Among them, allĀ 11Ā Trust TerritoriesĀ have achieved self-determination through independence or free association with an independent State. Former Non-Self-Governing Territories ceased to be on the list of Non-Self-Governing Territories due to their change in status or as a result of their choice of independence, free association or integration with an independent State. Today, there areĀ 17 Non-Self-Governing TerritoriesĀ remaining and fewer than 2 million people live in such Territories
The decolonization efforts of the United Nations derive from the principle of āequal rights and self-determination of peoplesā as stipulated inĀ Article 1 (2)Ā of theĀ Charter of the United Nations, as well as from three specific chapters in the Charter which are devoted to the interests of dependent peoples. The Charter established, in itsĀ Chapter XIĀ ("Declaration regarding Non-Self-Governing Territories", Articles 73 and 74), the principles that continue to guide theĀ decolonization efforts of the United Nations. The Charter also established theĀ International Trusteeship SystemĀ inĀ Chapter XIIĀ (Articles 75-85) and theĀ Trusteeship CouncilĀ inĀ Chapter XIIIĀ (Articles 86-91) to monitorĀ the Trust Territories.
The Charter binds administering Powers, namelyĀ "Members of theĀ United Nations which haveĀ or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories whose peoples have not yet attained a full measure of self-government", in the language of the Charter, to recognize that the interests of dependent territories are paramount, to agree to promote social, economic, political and educational progress in the Non-Self-Governing Territories with due respect for the culture of the peoples concerned, to assist the peoples in developing appropriate forms of self-government, and to take into account the political aspirations and stages of development and advancement of each Non-Self-Governing Territory. Administering Powers are also obliged under the Charter to transmit to the United NationsĀ information on conditions in the Non-Self-Governing Territories. The United Nations monitors progress towards self-determination in the Non-Self-Governing Territories.
In 1960, theĀ General AssemblyĀ adopted theĀ Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV)), known also as the Declaration on Decolonization. By this resolution, the General Assembly, considering the important role of the United Nations in assisting the movement for independence in Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories, solemnly proclaimed the necessity of bringing colonialism in all its forms and manifestations to a speedy and unconditional end, and in this context, declared, inter alia, that all people had a right to self-determination.Ā
According toĀ General Assembly resolution 1541 (XV)Ā ofĀ 1960 entitled "Principles which should guide Members in determining whether or not an obligation exists to transmit the information called for under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter",Ā a Non-Self-Governing Territory can be said to have reached a full measure of self-government by:
ā¢Ā Ā Ā Emergence as a sovereign independent State;
ā¢Ā Ā Ā Free association with an independent State;
ā¢Ā Ā Ā Integration with an independent State.
In addition,Ā by the "Declaration on Principles of International law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations", as approved by the General Assembly by itsĀ resolution 2625 (XXV)Ā of 1970, the General Assembly solemnly proclaimed the principles of international law concerning friendly relations and cooperation among States, including the principle of "equal rights and self-determination of peoples". In that principle, it is stated that the "establishment of a sovereign and independent State, the free association or integration with an independent State or the emergence into any other political status freely determined by a people constitute modes of implementing the right of self-determination by that people".
Intergovernmental bodies of the United Nations dealing with decolonization agenda
The General Assembly, byĀ itsĀ resolution 66 (I)Ā of 1946, initiallyĀ set up an ad hoc committee "to examine the Secretary-General's summary and analysis of the information transmitted under Article 73 (e) of the Charter with a view to aiding the General Assembly in its consideration of this information" which was composed in equal number of representatives of the Members transmitting information under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter and of representatives of Members elected on the basis of an equitable geographical representation.Ā In subsequent years,Ā the Special Committee on Information Transmitted under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter, later renamedĀ as the Committee on Information from Non-Self-Governing Territories, took over the task to examine the summaries and analyses of information transmitted under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter, including any papers prepared by the specialized agencies, and was dissolved inĀ 1963 (seeĀ General Assembly resolutionsĀ 146 (II),Ā 219 (III),Ā 332 (IV),Ā 333 (IV),Ā 569 (VI),Ā 646 (VII),Ā 933 (X),Ā 1332 (XIII),Ā 1700Ā (XVI)Ā andĀ 1970 (XVIII)).Ā
In 1961, the General Assembly, by itsĀ resolution 1654 (XVI), established theĀ Special Committee on the Situation with regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence of Colonial Countries and PeoplesĀ (also known as the Special Committee on Decolonization or C-24), as its subsidiary organ,Ā to monitor implementation of the 1960 Declaration on DeclarationĀ and to make recommendations on its application. The C-24 commenced its work in 1962 with the original 17 members, which was immediately expanded to 24 members by the end of 1962 (for more details on membership, seeĀ C-24 Members page).Ā Following the dissolution of the Committee on Information from Non-Self-Governing Territories, the C-24 was tasked to study information transmitted as prescribed under Article 73Ā eĀ of the Charter, pursuant toĀ General Assembly resolution 1970 (XVIII).
Agenda items relating to decolonization are also considered by theĀ Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee), one of theĀ Main CommitteesĀ of the General Assembly.Ā The Fourth Committee considers recommendations of the C-24 and prepares draft resolutions and decisions for submission to the plenary of the General Assembly.
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Ā @Atrail_Mckinley4786Ā TheĀ Louisiana PurchaseĀ (French:Ā Vente de la Louisiane,Ā lit.ā'Sale of Louisiana') was the acquisition of theĀ territory of LouisianaĀ by theĀ United StatesĀ from theĀ French First RepublicĀ in 1803. This consisted of most of the land in theĀ Mississippi River's drainage basinĀ west of the river.[1]Ā In return for fifteen million dollars,[a]Ā or approximately eighteen dollars per square mile,[b]Ā the United States nominally acquired a total of 828,000Ā sqĀ mi (2,140,000Ā km2; 530,000,000 acres) inĀ Middle America. However, France only controlled a small fraction of this area, most of which was inhabited byĀ Native Americans; effectively, for the majority of the area, the United States bought the preemptive right to obtain Indian lands by treaty or by conquest, to the exclusion of other colonial powers.[2][3]
TheĀ Kingdom of FranceĀ had controlled the Louisiana territory from 1682[4]Ā untilĀ it was cededĀ toĀ SpainĀ in 1762. In 1800,Ā Napoleon Bonaparte, the First Consul of theĀ French Republic,Ā regained ownershipĀ of Louisiana in exchange for territories inĀ TuscanyĀ as part of a broader effort to re-establish aĀ French colonial empireĀ in North America. However, France's failure to suppress aĀ revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with theĀ United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to consider selling Louisiana to the United States. Acquisition of Louisiana was a long-term goal of PresidentĀ Thomas Jefferson, who was especially eager to gain control of the crucialĀ Mississippi RiverĀ port ofĀ New Orleans. Jefferson taskedĀ James MonroeĀ andĀ Robert R. LivingstonĀ with purchasing New Orleans. Negotiating with French Treasury MinisterĀ FranƧois BarbĆ©-Marbois, the U.S. representatives quickly agreed to purchase the entire territory of Louisiana after it was offered. Overcoming the opposition of theĀ Federalist Party, Jefferson and Secretary of StateĀ James MadisonĀ persuaded Congress to ratify and fund the Louisiana Purchase.
The Louisiana Purchase extended United States sovereignty across the Mississippi River, nearly doubling the nominal size of the country. The purchase included land from fifteen presentĀ U.S. statesĀ and twoĀ Canadian provinces, including the entirety ofĀ Arkansas,Ā Missouri,Ā Iowa,Ā Oklahoma,Ā Kansas, andĀ Nebraska; large portions ofĀ North DakotaĀ andĀ South Dakota; the area ofĀ Montana,Ā Wyoming, andĀ ColoradoĀ east of theĀ Continental Divide; the portion ofĀ MinnesotaĀ west of the Mississippi River; the northeastern section ofĀ New Mexico; northern portions ofĀ Texas; New Orleans and the portions of the presentĀ state of LouisianaĀ west of the Mississippi River; and small portions of land withinĀ AlbertaĀ andĀ Saskatchewan. At the time of the purchase, the territory of Louisiana's non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half wereĀ enslaved Africans.[5]Ā The western borders of the purchase were later settled by the 1819Ā AdamsāOnĆs TreatyĀ withĀ Spain, while the northern borders of the purchase were adjusted by theĀ Treaty of 1818Ā with the British.
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In 1993, the Oslo Accords were signed, but they didn't lead to a lasting peace in Palestine.Ā While the accords aimed to establish an interim framework for self-government, they ultimately fell short of a comprehensive resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.Ā Several factors contributed to this failure, including:Ā
1. Lack of a Clear Two-State Solution: The accords didn't explicitly define the goal of a two-state solution, leaving room for ambiguity about the future status of Palestine.Ā
2. Power Imbalance and US Intervention: The negotiation framework favored Israel, a powerful, nuclear-armed nation, over stateless Palestinians under occupation.Ā The U.S., a major backer of Israel, also failed to act as a neutral mediator.Ā
3. Israeli Expansion of Settlements: Israel continued to expand settlements in the West Bank, undermining any progress toward a land-based peace agreement and creating "facts on the ground".Ā
4. Violent Opposition: Right-wing Israeli extremists, who opposed any negotiations with the Palestinians, further undermined the peace process with acts of violence, including the assassination of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.Ā
5. Internal Palestinian Divisions: Groups like Hamas opposed the Oslo Accords and engaged in attacks against Israelis, further hindering the peace process.Ā
6. Lack of Regional Consensus: There wasn't a clear Arab consensus on linking regional issues like security and economics to the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations, allowing Israel to potentially gain what it wanted without making significant concessions.Ā
7. Failure to Address Key Issues: The accords failed to address critical issues like the status of East Jerusalem, the right of return for Palestinian refugees, and the ongoing issue of Palestinian sovereignty, leading to the continuation of the conflict.
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European empires, like the Holy Roman Empire, the Habsburg Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Russian Empire, largely "disappeared" due to the rise of nationalism and the devastation of World War I, which led to their breakdown into smaller, independent nation-states across the continent;Ā essentially,Ā the empires fractured into various countries as their territories gained independence, leaving no single dominant imperial power in Europe today.Ā
Key points to remember:
World War I as a catalyst:
The First World War significantly weakened the large empires, paving the way for their disintegration and the formation of new nations based on ethnic and political self-determination.Ā
No single empire left:
Currently, no major European empire exists, only independent nation-states.Ā
Legacy of empires:
While the empires are gone, their historical borders and cultural influences remain evident in the current political landscape of Europe.
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Austria wasĀ occupiedĀ by theĀ AlliesĀ and declared independent fromĀ Nazi GermanyĀ on 27 April 1945 (confirmed by theĀ Berlin DeclarationĀ for Germany on 5 June 1945), as a result of theĀ Vienna offensive. The occupation ended when theĀ Austrian State TreatyĀ came into force on 27 July 1955.
After theĀ AnschlussĀ in 1938,Ā AustriaĀ had generally been recognized as part of Nazi Germany. In 1943, however, the Allies agreed in theĀ Declaration of MoscowĀ that Austria would instead be regarded asĀ the first victim of Nazi aggressionāwithout denying Austria's role in Nazi crimesāand treated as a liberated and independent country after the war.
In the immediateĀ aftermath of World War II, Austria was divided into four occupation zones and jointly occupied by theĀ United Kingdom, theĀ Soviet Union, theĀ United States, andĀ France.Ā ViennaĀ was similarly subdivided, but the central district was collectively administered by theĀ Allied Control Council.
Whereas Germany was divided intoĀ EastĀ andĀ West GermanyĀ in 1949, Austria remained under joint occupation of the Western Allies and the Soviet Union until 1955; its status became a controversial subject in theĀ Cold WarĀ until the warming of relations known as theĀ Khrushchev Thaw. After Austrian promises of perpetual neutrality, Austria was accorded full independence on 15 May 1955 and the last occupation troops left on 25 October that year.
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Mandatory Palestine[a][5]Ā was a geopolitical entity that existed between 1920 and 1948 in theĀ region of PalestineĀ under the terms of theĀ League of NationsĀ Mandate for Palestine.
After anĀ Arab uprisingĀ against the Ottoman Empire during theĀ First World WarĀ in 1916,Ā BritishĀ forcesĀ droveĀ Ottoman forcesĀ out of theĀ Levant.[6]Ā TheĀ United KingdomĀ had agreed in theĀ McMahonāHussein CorrespondenceĀ that it would honour Arab independence in case of a revolt but, in the end, the United Kingdom andĀ FranceĀ divided what had beenĀ Ottoman SyriaĀ under theĀ SykesāPicot Agreementāan act of betrayal in the eyes of the Arabs. Another issue was theĀ Balfour DeclarationĀ of 1917, in which Britain promised its support for the establishment of aĀ Jewish "national home"Ā in Palestine. Mandatory Palestine was then established in 1920, and the British obtained aĀ Mandate for PalestineĀ from theĀ League of NationsĀ in 1922.[7]
During the Mandate, the area saw successive waves ofĀ Jewish immigrationĀ and the rise ofĀ nationalist movementsĀ in both the Jewish and Arab communities. Competing interests of the two populations led to theĀ 1936ā1939 Arab revolt in PalestineĀ and the 1944ā1948Ā Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine. TheĀ United Nations Partition Plan for PalestineĀ to divide the territory into two states, one Arab and one Jewish, was passed in November 1947. TheĀ 1948 Palestine warĀ ended with the territory of Mandatory Palestine divided among theĀ State of Israel, theĀ Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, whichĀ annexed territory on the West BankĀ of theĀ Jordan River, and theĀ Kingdom of Egypt, which established the "All-Palestine Protectorate" in theĀ Gaza Strip.
Mandatory Palestine was designated as aĀ Class A Mandate, based on its social, political, and economic development. This classification was reserved for post-war mandates with the highest capacity for self-governance.[8]Ā All Class A mandates other than mandatory Palestine had gained independence by 1946.[9]
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Don't delete this please. It's history nothing more.
Mandatory Palestine[a][5]Ā was a geopolitical entity that existed between 1920 and 1948 in theĀ region of PalestineĀ under the terms of theĀ League of NationsĀ Mandate for Palestine.
After anĀ Arab uprisingĀ against the Ottoman Empire during theĀ First World WarĀ in 1916,Ā BritishĀ forcesĀ droveĀ Ottoman forcesĀ out of theĀ Levant.[6]Ā TheĀ United KingdomĀ had agreed in theĀ McMahonāHussein CorrespondenceĀ that it would honour Arab independence in case of a revolt but, in the end, the United Kingdom andĀ FranceĀ divided what had beenĀ Ottoman SyriaĀ under theĀ SykesāPicot Agreementāan act of betrayal in the eyes of the Arabs. Another issue was theĀ Balfour DeclarationĀ of 1917, in which Britain promised its support for the establishment of aĀ Jewish "national home"Ā in Palestine. Mandatory Palestine was then established in 1920, and the British obtained aĀ Mandate for PalestineĀ from theĀ League of NationsĀ in 1922.[7]
During the Mandate, the area saw successive waves ofĀ Jewish immigrationĀ and the rise ofĀ nationalist movementsĀ in both the Jewish and Arab communities. Competing interests of the two populations led to theĀ 1936ā1939 Arab revolt in PalestineĀ and the 1944ā1948Ā Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine. TheĀ United Nations Partition Plan for PalestineĀ to divide the territory into two states, one Arab and one Jewish, was passed in November 1947. TheĀ 1948 Palestine warĀ ended with the territory of Mandatory Palestine divided among theĀ State of Israel, theĀ Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, whichĀ annexed territory on the West BankĀ of theĀ Jordan River, and theĀ Kingdom of Egypt, which established the "All-Palestine Protectorate" in theĀ Gaza Strip.
Mandatory Palestine was designated as aĀ Class A Mandate, based on its social, political, and economic development. This classification was reserved for post-war mandates with the highest capacity for self-governance.[8]Ā All Class A mandates other than mandatory Palestine had gained independence by 1946.[9].
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The settlement ofĀ Las Vegas, Nevada was founded in 1905 after the opening of aĀ railroad that linked Los Angeles and Salt Lake City. The stopover attracted some farmers (mostly from Utah) to the area, and fresh water was piped in to the settlement. In 1911, the town was incorporated as part of the newly founded Clark County. Urbanization took off in 1931 when work started on the Boulder Dam (now theĀ Hoover Dam), bringing a huge influx of young male workers, for whom theaters andĀ casinosĀ were built, largely by theĀ Mafia. Electricity from the dam also enabled the building of many new hotels along the Strip. The arrival ofĀ Howard HughesĀ in 1966 did much to offset mob influence and helped turn Las Vegas into more of a family tourist center, now classified as a Mega resort.
The name Las VegasāSpanish for āthe meadowsāāwas given to the area in 1829 by Rafael Rivera, a member of the Spanish explorerĀ Antonio ArmijoĀ trading party that was traveling toĀ Los Angeles, and stopped for water there on theĀ Old Spanish TrailĀ fromĀ New Mexico. At that time, several parts of the valley containedĀ artesian wellsĀ surrounded by extensive green areas. The flows from the wells fed theĀ Las Vegas Wash, which runs to theĀ Colorado River.
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Ā @JBEMultimediamadridĀ it's what we tell people now we even wind people up about places like Korea etc I have done since a kid living here. Those that go on about colonial history we just say shut up you have been decolonised and from things people complain about in Africa and the middle east today stems what they have today because of it
Even America was 13 British colonies not so long ago trouble with that history is that colonies that where British and French where actually British or french and the people living there before decolonisation.
Trouble with the West it was decolonised before ww1 because it's mainly Europeans living there in the east and Africa Asia it's different people living there but it's similar history all stems from Europe.
After World War II,Ā many countries gained independence from colonial powers, including:Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
India and Pakistan:Ā The British evacuated the subcontinent in 1947, granting independence to India and a divided Pakistan.Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Indonesia:Ā Indonesia gained independence from the Netherlands.Ā
ļæ¼
The Philippines:Ā The Philippines gained independence from the United States.Ā
ļæ¼
Arab nations:Ā Several Arab nations gained independence from mandates granted to great powers by the League of Nations.Ā
ļæ¼
Israel:Ā Israel gained independence from the United Kingdom.Ā
ļæ¼
Sub-Saharan Africa:Ā Many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa gained independence in the 1960s.Ā
ļæ¼
Japan:Ā After Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945, it lost its colonies, which were returned to their Western colonizers.Ā
ļæ¼
The United Nations, founded in 1945, played a role in this wave of decolonization, which changed the face of the world.Ā At the time of its founding, around 750 million people, nearly a third of the world's population, lived in territories dependent on colonial powers.Ā Today, there are only 17 Non-Self-Governing Territories remaining, with fewer than 2 million people living in them.
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Decolonisation of the Middle-East
NameĀ Date of Independence
Colonising Power
IraqOctober 3, 1932Great BritainLebanonIndependence declared on November 22, 1943. Full Independence granted in 1946FranceSyriaNovember 30, 1943. Full Independence granted in 1945FranceIsraelMay 14, 1948Great BritainCyprusAugust 16, 1960Great BritainKuwaitJune 19, 1961Great BritainOman1962Great BritainYemenNovember 30, 1967Great BritainQatarSeptember 3, 1971Great BritainBahrainAugust 15, 1971Great BritainUnited Arab EmiratesDecember 2, 1971Great Britain
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Ā @whiteangel3564Ā you been lying to us some of us in the UK knew about decolonisation after ww2 and how the world and Europe changed over the last 100 years have a look around you at us in Europe now and the UK and London and your part of the British commonwealth to
British decolonisation in Asia
The campaigns of civil disobedience led by Gandhi in India during the interwar years had exasperated Great Britain. India, a poor country but one with a large population, intended to play a role on the world stage by making itself the primary advocate of neutralist anti-colonialism. However, at the end of the Second World War the British Government did not have the means to face a new colonial war. It eventually decided to grant independence to the Indian subcontinent in August 1947, but the period was marked by violent clashes between the Hindu and Muslim communities.
While Gandhi and Nehru, the main leaders of the Congress Party, advocated Indian unity, the Muslim League, directed by Ali Jinnah, called for the creation of an independent Muslim state. The violence between the two sides escalated and degenerated into a civil war. In February 1947, the British decided to evacuate the country, and on 15 August 1947 it was partitioned into two independent states: India, with a Hindu majority, and Pakistan, with a Muslim majority. The Republic of India was proclaimed in January 1950, once the constitution had been drawn up, but it remained a member of the British Commonwealth.
In 1948, two other British possessions, Burma and Ceylon, were granted independence, but Malaya had to wait until 1957 before it achieved the same status.
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IslamĀ is theĀ second-largest religionĀ inĀ EuropeĀ afterĀ Christianity.[2]Ā Although the majority of Muslim communities inĀ Western EuropeĀ formed as a result of immigration,[3]Ā there are centuries-oldĀ indigenous EuropeanĀ Muslim communities in theĀ Balkans,Ā Caucasus,Ā Crimea, andĀ Volga region.[4][5][6][7]Ā The term "Muslim Europe" is used to refer to the Muslim-majority countries in the Balkans and the Caucasus (Albania,Ā Bosnia and Herzegovina,Ā Kosovo,Ā Turkey, andĀ Azerbaijan)[8]Ā and parts of countries inĀ Eastern EuropeĀ with sizable Muslim minorities (Bulgaria,Ā Montenegro,Ā North Macedonia,[9]Ā and someĀ republicsĀ ofĀ Russia) that constitute large populations ofĀ indigenous EuropeanĀ Muslims,[4][5][6][8]Ā although the majority areĀ secular.[4][5][8][10]
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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IslamĀ is theĀ second-largest religionĀ inĀ EuropeĀ afterĀ Christianity.[2]Ā Although the majority of Muslim communities inĀ Western EuropeĀ formed as a result of immigration,[3]Ā there are centuries-oldĀ indigenous EuropeanĀ Muslim communities in theĀ Balkans,Ā Caucasus,Ā Crimea, andĀ Volga region.[4][5][6][7]Ā The term "Muslim Europe" is used to refer to the Muslim-majority countries in the Balkans and the Caucasus (Albania,Ā Bosnia and Herzegovina,Ā Kosovo,Ā Turkey, andĀ Azerbaijan)[8]Ā and parts of countries inĀ Eastern EuropeĀ with sizable Muslim minorities (Bulgaria,Ā Montenegro,Ā North Macedonia,[9]Ā and someĀ republicsĀ ofĀ Russia) that constitute large populations ofĀ indigenous EuropeanĀ Muslims,[4][5][6][8]Ā although the majority areĀ secular.[4][5][8][10]
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They want to bury our history in Europe and the UK around 600 years of it make us live in a internal hell because they don't know how to cope with the past let's take a look at it because it's pretty amazing and people don't understand the world back then and before ww1 and ww2 was complete different from today.
TheĀ British EmpireĀ comprised theĀ dominions,Ā colonies,Ā protectorates,Ā mandates, and otherĀ territoriesĀ ruled or administered by theĀ United KingdomĀ and its predecessor states. It began with theĀ overseas possessionsĀ andĀ trading postsĀ established byĀ EnglandĀ in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was theĀ largest empire in historyĀ and, for a century, was the foremost global power.[1]Ā By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412Ā million people,Ā 23Ā percent of the world population at the time,[2]Ā and by 1920, it covered 35.5Ā millionĀ km2Ā (13.7Ā millionĀ sqĀ mi),[3]Ā 24Ā per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result,Ā its constitutional,Ā legal,Ā linguistic, andĀ culturalĀ legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.[4]
During theĀ Age of DiscoveryĀ in the 15th and 16th centuries,Ā PortugalĀ andĀ SpainĀ pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated,[5]Ā England,Ā France, and theĀ NetherlandsĀ began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in theĀ AmericasĀ andĀ Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France leftĀ BritainĀ the dominantĀ colonial powerĀ inĀ North America. Britain became a major power in theĀ Indian subcontinentĀ after theĀ East India Company'sĀ conquestĀ ofĀ Mughal BengalĀ at theĀ Battle of PlasseyĀ in 1757.
TheĀ American War of IndependenceĀ resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. While retaining control ofĀ British North AmericaĀ (nowĀ Canada) and territories in and near theĀ CaribbeanĀ in theĀ British West Indies, British colonial expansion turned towards Asia,Ā Africa, and theĀ Pacific. After the defeat of France in theĀ Napoleonic WarsĀ (1803ā1815), Britain emerged as the principalĀ navalĀ and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory inĀ Southeast Asia. The "Great Game" and "Scramble for Africa" also ensued. The period of relative peace (1815ā1914) during which the British Empire became the globalĀ hegemonĀ was later described asĀ Pax BritannicaĀ (Latin for "British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade, and of its oceans, meant that it effectivelyĀ controlled the economies of, and readily enforced its interests in, many regions, such as Asia andĀ Latin America.[6]Ā It also came to dominate theĀ Middle East. Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its whiteĀ settler colonies, some of which were formally reclassified asĀ DominionsĀ by the 1920s. By the start of the 20th century,Ā GermanyĀ and theĀ United StatesĀ had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military, economic and colonial tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of theĀ First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power.
In theĀ Second World War, Britain's colonies inĀ East AsiaĀ andĀ Southeast AsiaĀ were occupied by theĀ Empire of Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain andĀ its allies, the damage to British prestige and the British economy helped accelerate the decline of the empire.Ā India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achievedĀ independenceĀ in 1947 as part of a largerĀ decolonisationĀ movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. TheĀ Suez CrisisĀ of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and theĀ handover of Hong Kong to ChinaĀ on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire,[7]Ā though fourteenĀ overseas territoriesĀ that are remnants of the empire remain underĀ British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined theĀ Commonwealth of Nations, which has been a free association of independent states since the 1949Ā London Declaration.[8]Ā Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom,Ā retain the same person as monarch, currently KingĀ Charles III..
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KurdistanĀ (Kurdish:Ā Ś©ŁŲ±ŲÆŲ³ŲŖŲ§Ł,Ā romanized:Ā Kurdistan,Ā lit.ā'land of the Kurds';Ā [ĖkŹÉ¾dÉŖĖstÉĖn]Ā ā),[5]Ā orĀ Greater Kurdistan,[6][7]Ā is a roughly defined geo-cultural regionĀ inĀ West AsiaĀ wherein theĀ KurdsĀ form a prominent majority population[8]Ā and theĀ Kurdish culture,Ā languages, andĀ national identityĀ have historically been based.[9]Ā Geographically, Kurdistan roughly encompasses the northwesternĀ ZagrosĀ and the easternĀ TaurusĀ mountain ranges.
Kurdistan generally comprises the following four regions: southeastern Turkey (Northern Kurdistan), northernĀ IraqĀ (Southern Kurdistan), northwestern Iran (Eastern Kurdistan), and northernĀ SyriaĀ (Western Kurdistan).[3][10]Ā Some definitions also include parts of southernĀ Transcaucasia.[11]Ā CertainĀ Kurdish nationalistĀ organizations seek to create an independentĀ nation stateĀ consisting of some or all of these areas with a Kurdish majority, while others campaign for greater autonomy within the existing national boundaries.[12]Ā The delineation of the region remains disputed and varied, with some maps greatly exaggerating its boundaries.
Historically, the word "Kurdistan" is first attested in 11th centuryĀ SeljukĀ chronicles.[13]Ā Many disparateĀ Kurdish dynasties, emirates, principalities, and chiefdomsĀ were established from the 8th to 19th centuries. Administratively, the 20th century saw the establishment of the short-lived areas of theĀ Kurdish stateĀ (1918ā1919),Ā Kingdom of KurdistanĀ (1921ā1924),Ā Kurdistansky UyezdĀ i.e. "Red Kurdistan" (1923ā1929),Ā Republic of AraratĀ (1927ā1930), andĀ Republic of MahabadĀ (1946).
In Iraq, following theĀ AylÅ«l Revolt, the government entered into anĀ agreementĀ with the rebellious Kurds, granting Kurds local self-rule. Soon after, however, the agreementĀ collapsed. Later, during theĀ Iraqi no-fly zones conflict, which followed theĀ Gulf War, the Iraqi military withdrew from parts of northern Iraq, allowing the Kurds to fill the vacuum and regain lost control in those areas. After theĀ invasion of Iraq, and since the creation of the new IraqiĀ federal state, the new constitution issued in 2005 recognisesĀ Kurdistan RegionĀ as a federal region;[14]Ā even though the constitution does not include the term āautonomyā, it emphasisesĀ decentralisationĀ andĀ devolution, allowing regions andĀ governoratesĀ to administer local affairs. In practice, however, only Kurdistan Region has exercised this authority granted by the constitution. In September 2017, Iraqi Kurds held a one-sidedĀ independence referendum, which eventuallyĀ failedĀ and was abandoned. The subsequent effort by the Iraqi government to punish Kurdistan Region has resulted in the latter losing authorities it had previously possessed,[15]Ā and the future of Kurdish autonomy in Iraq has been called into question.[16]Ā Iraqi Kurdish officials have also complained of efforts by the Iraqi government to return to the pre-2003Ā centralized governmentĀ and dismantle Kurdistan Region altogether.[17]
There is also aĀ Kurdistan ProvinceĀ in Iran, which is not self-ruled. Kurds fighting in theĀ Syrian Civil WarĀ were able to take control of large sections of northern Syria and establishĀ self-governing regionsĀ in anĀ Autonomous Administration of North and East SyriaĀ (commonly called Rojava), where they seek autonomy in aĀ federal SyriaĀ after the war.[18]
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Please leave this up don't delete it it's good for you to know about Kurdistan and Kurds good people.
KurdistanĀ (Kurdish:Ā Ś©ŁŲ±ŲÆŲ³ŲŖŲ§Ł,Ā romanized:Ā Kurdistan,Ā lit.ā'land of the Kurds';Ā [ĖkŹÉ¾dÉŖĖstÉĖn]Ā ā),[5]Ā orĀ Greater Kurdistan,[6][7]Ā is a roughly defined geo-cultural regionĀ inĀ West AsiaĀ wherein theĀ KurdsĀ form a prominent majority population[8]Ā and theĀ Kurdish culture,Ā languages, andĀ national identityĀ have historically been based.[9]Ā Geographically, Kurdistan roughly encompasses the northwesternĀ ZagrosĀ and the easternĀ TaurusĀ mountain ranges.
Kurdistan generally comprises the following four regions: southeastern Turkey (Northern Kurdistan), northernĀ IraqĀ (Southern Kurdistan), northwestern Iran (Eastern Kurdistan), and northernĀ SyriaĀ (Western Kurdistan).[3][10]Ā Some definitions also include parts of southernĀ Transcaucasia.[11]Ā CertainĀ Kurdish nationalistĀ organizations seek to create an independentĀ nation stateĀ consisting of some or all of these areas with a Kurdish majority, while others campaign for greater autonomy within the existing national boundaries.[12]Ā The delineation of the region remains disputed and varied, with some maps greatly exaggerating its boundaries.
Historically, the word "Kurdistan" is first attested in 11th centuryĀ SeljukĀ chronicles.[13]Ā Many disparateĀ Kurdish dynasties, emirates, principalities, and chiefdomsĀ were established from the 8th to 19th centuries. Administratively, the 20th century saw the establishment of the short-lived areas of theĀ Kurdish stateĀ (1918ā1919),Ā Kingdom of KurdistanĀ (1921ā1924),Ā Kurdistansky UyezdĀ i.e. "Red Kurdistan" (1923ā1929),Ā Republic of AraratĀ (1927ā1930), andĀ Republic of MahabadĀ (1946).
In Iraq, following theĀ AylÅ«l Revolt, the government entered into anĀ agreementĀ with the rebellious Kurds, granting Kurds local self-rule. Soon after, however, the agreementĀ collapsed. Later, during theĀ Iraqi no-fly zones conflict, which followed theĀ Gulf War, the Iraqi military withdrew from parts of northern Iraq, allowing the Kurds to fill the vacuum and regain lost control in those areas. After theĀ invasion of Iraq, and since the creation of the new IraqiĀ federal state, the new constitution issued in 2005 recognisesĀ Kurdistan RegionĀ as a federal region;[14]Ā even though the constitution does not include the term āautonomyā, it emphasisesĀ decentralisationĀ andĀ devolution, allowing regions andĀ governoratesĀ to administer local affairs. In practice, however, only Kurdistan Region has exercised this authority granted by the constitution. In September 2017, Iraqi Kurds held a one-sidedĀ independence referendum, which eventuallyĀ failedĀ and was abandoned. The subsequent effort by the Iraqi government to punish Kurdistan Region has resulted in the latter losing authorities it had previously possessed,[15]Ā and the future of Kurdish autonomy in Iraq has been called into question.[16]Ā Iraqi Kurdish officials have also complained of efforts by the Iraqi government to return to the pre-2003Ā centralized governmentĀ and dismantle Kurdistan Region altogether.[17]
There is also aĀ Kurdistan ProvinceĀ in Iran, which is not self-ruled. Kurds fighting in theĀ Syrian Civil WarĀ were able to take control of large sections of northern Syria and establishĀ self-governing regionsĀ in anĀ Autonomous Administration of North and East SyriaĀ (commonly called Rojava), where they seek autonomy in aĀ federal SyriaĀ after the war.[18]
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TheĀ Abraham AccordsĀ are bilateral agreements onĀ ArabāIsraeli normalizationĀ signed betweenĀ IsraelĀ and theĀ United Arab EmiratesĀ and between Israel andĀ BahrainĀ on September 15, 2020.[1][2]Ā Mediated by theĀ United States, the announcement of August 13, 2020, concernedĀ Israel and the UAEĀ before the subsequent announcement of an agreement betweenĀ Israel and BahrainĀ on September 11, 2020. On September 15, 2020, the signing of the agreements was hosted byĀ US president TrumpĀ on theĀ Truman BalconyĀ of theĀ White HouseĀ amid elaborate staging intended to evoke the signings of historic formal peace treaties in prior administrations.[3][4][5]
As part of the two agreements, both the UAE and BahrainĀ recognized Israel's sovereignty, enabling the establishment of full diplomatic relations. Israel's initial agreement with the UAE marked the first instance of Israel establishing diplomatic relations with an Arab country since 1994, when theĀ IsraelāJordan peace treatyĀ came into effect.[6]Ā The agreements were named "Abraham Accords" to highlight the common belief ofĀ JudaismĀ andĀ IslamĀ in the prophetĀ Abraham.[7][8]
On October 23, 2020, Israel and SudanĀ agreed to normalize ties; the agreement is unratified as of 2024.[9]Ā As part of the agreement, the US removed Sudan from its list ofĀ state sponsors of terrorismĀ and gave them a US$1.2 billion loan.[10]Ā On January 6, 2021, the government ofĀ SudanĀ signed the "Abraham Accords Declaration" inĀ Khartoum.[11]Ā On December 22, 2020, theĀ IsraelāMorocco normalization agreementĀ was signed. In exchange for Morocco's recognition of Israeli sovereignty, the United States recognized Moroccan sovereignty overĀ Western Sahara.[12].
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Empire and the Making of the Modern World, 1650-2000
About the Series
This monograph series seeks to explore the complexities of the relationships among empires, modernity and global history. In so doing, it wishes to challenge the orthodoxy that the experience of modernity was located exclusively in the west, and that the non-western world was brought into the modern age through conquest, mimicry and association. To the contrary, modernity had its origins in the interaction between the two worlds.
In this sense the imperial experience was not an adjunct to western modernization, but was constitutive of it. Thus the origins of the defining features of modernity - the bureaucratic state, market economy, governance, and so on - have to be sought in the imperial encounter, as do the categories such as race, sexuality and citizenship which constitute the modern individual. This necessarily complicates perspectives on the nature of the relationships between the western and non-western worlds, nation and empire, and 'centre' and 'periphery'.
To examine these issues the series presents work that is interdisciplinary and comparative in its approach; in this respect disciplines including economics, geography, literature, politics, intellectual history, anthropology, science, legal studies, psychoanalysis and cultural studies have much potential, and will all feature. Equally, we consider race, gender and class vital categories to the study of imperial experiences. We aim, therefore, to provide a forum for dialogues among different modes of writing the histories of empires and the modern. Much valuable work on empires is currently undertaken outside the western academy and has yet to receive due attention. This is an imbalance the series intends to address and so we are particularly interested in contributions from such scholars. Also important to us are transnational and comparative perspectives on the imperial experiences of western and non-western worlds.
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TheĀ Battle of New OrleansĀ was fought on January 8, 1815, between the British Army under Major General SirĀ Edward PakenhamĀ and the United States Army under Brevet Major GeneralĀ Andrew Jackson,[3]Ā roughly 5 miles (8Ā km) southeast of theĀ French QuarterĀ ofĀ New Orleans,[7]Ā in the current suburb ofĀ Chalmette, Louisiana.[1][3]
The battle was the climax of the five-monthĀ Gulf CampaignĀ (September 1814 to February 1815) by Britain to try to take New Orleans,Ā West Florida, and possiblyĀ Louisiana TerritoryĀ which began at theĀ First Battle of Fort Bowyer. Britain started the New Orleans campaign on December 14, 1814, at theĀ Battle of Lake BorgneĀ and numerous skirmishes and artillery duels happened in the weeks leading up to the final battle.
The battle took place 15 days after the signing of theĀ Treaty of Ghent, which formally ended theĀ War of 1812, on December 24, 1814, though it would not be ratified by the United States (and therefore did not take effect) until February 16, 1815, as news of the agreement had not yet reached the United States from Europe.[8]Ā Despite a British advantage in numbers, training, and experience, the American forces defeated a poorly executed assault in slightly more than 30 minutes. The Americans suffered 71 casualties, while the British suffered over 2,000, including the deaths of the commanding general, Major General Sir Edward Pakenham, and hisĀ second-in-command, Major General Samuel Gibbs.
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Ā @Mister_SuperflyĀ really this should apply to most others from around the world living in America to lots of them would have come from British colonies around the world to or lived in the British 13 colonies in America to but other Europeans had settlements there and we actually took over bits of it from the Dutch.
British AmericansĀ usually refers toĀ AmericansĀ whoseĀ ancestral originĀ originates wholly or partly in theĀ United KingdomĀ (England,Ā Scotland,Ā Wales, andĀ Northern IrelandĀ and also theĀ Isle of Man, theĀ Channel Islands, andĀ Gibraltar). It is primarily a demographic or historical research category for people who have at least partial descent from peoples ofĀ Great BritainĀ and the modernĀ United Kingdom, i.e.Ā English,Ā Scottish,Ā Irish,Ā Welsh,Ā Scotch-Irish,Ā Orcadian,Ā Manx,Ā Cornish AmericansĀ and those from theĀ Channel IslandsĀ andĀ Gibraltar.
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Empire and the Making of the Modern World, 1650-2000
About the Series
This monograph series seeks to explore the complexities of the relationships among empires, modernity and global history. In so doing, it wishes to challenge the orthodoxy that the experience of modernity was located exclusively in the west, and that the non-western world was brought into the modern age through conquest, mimicry and association. To the contrary, modernity had its origins in the interaction between the two worlds.
In this sense the imperial experience was not an adjunct to western modernization, but was constitutive of it. Thus the origins of the defining features of modernity - the bureaucratic state, market economy, governance, and so on - have to be sought in the imperial encounter, as do the categories such as race, sexuality and citizenship which constitute the modern individual. This necessarily complicates perspectives on the nature of the relationships between the western and non-western worlds, nation and empire, and 'centre' and 'periphery'.
To examine these issues the series presents work that is interdisciplinary and comparative in its approach; in this respect disciplines including economics, geography, literature, politics, intellectual history, anthropology, science, legal studies, psychoanalysis and cultural studies have much potential, and will all feature. Equally, we consider race, gender and class vital categories to the study of imperial experiences. We aim, therefore, to provide a forum for dialogues among different modes of writing the histories of empires and the modern. Much valuable work on empires is currently undertaken outside the western academy and has yet to receive due attention. This is an imbalance the series intends to address and so we are particularly interested in contributions from such scholars. Also important to us are transnational and comparative perspectives on the imperial experiences of western and non-western worlds.
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The Oslo Accords and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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Ā @SketchyGhettoSpicĀ i hope this gets kept up colonies where European where governed by the European nations who colonies they where protocerates and mandated areas where different and where crested with the help of people there
British protectoratesĀ wereĀ protectoratesāorĀ client statesāunder protection of theĀ British Empire's armed forces and represented by British diplomats in international arenas, such as theĀ Great Game, in which theĀ Emirate of AfghanistanĀ and theĀ Tibetan KingdomĀ became protected states for short periods of time.[1]Ā Many territories which became British protectorates already had local rulers with whom the Crown negotiated through treaty, acknowledging their status whilst simultaneously offering protection, e.g.Ā British Paramountcy. British protectorates were therefore governed byĀ indirect rule. In most cases, the local ruler, as well as the subjects of the indigenous ruler were notĀ British subjects.Ā British protected statesĀ represented a more loose form of BritishĀ suzerainty, where the local rulers retained absolute control over the states' internal affairs and the British exercised control over defence and foreign affairs.[2]
Americas
edit
ļæ¼Ā BarbadosĀ (1627ā1652) (as aĀ proprietary colonyĀ underĀ William Courteen, followed byĀ James Hay I)
ļæ¼Ā Mosquito CoastĀ (1638ā1860) (over Central America'sĀ MiskitoĀ Indian nation)
Arab world
edit
ļæ¼Ā Aden ProtectorateĀ (1872ā1963); precursor state ofĀ South Yemen[10]
Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Haudhramaut); later theĀ Protectorate of South ArabiaĀ (1963ā1967)
ļæ¼Ā Kathiri
ļæ¼Ā Mahra
ļæ¼Ā Qu'aiti
ļæ¼Ā Upper YafaĀ (consisted of five Sheikhdoms:Ā Al-Busi,Ā Al-Dhubi,Ā Hadrami,Ā Maflahi, andĀ Mawsata)
ļæ¼Ā Hawra
ļæ¼Ā Irqa
Western Protectorate States; later theĀ Federation of South ArabiaĀ (1959/1962-1967), includingĀ Aden Colony
ļæ¼Ā Wahidi SultanatesĀ (these included:Ā Balhaf,Ā Azzan,Ā Bir Ali, andĀ Habban)
ļæ¼Ā Beihan
ļæ¼Ā DhalaĀ andĀ Qutaibi
ļæ¼Ā Fadhli
ļæ¼Ā Lahej
ļæ¼Ā Lower Yafa
ļæ¼Ā Audhali
ļæ¼Ā Haushabi
ļæ¼Ā Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom
ļæ¼Ā Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
ļæ¼Ā Lower Aulaqi
ļæ¼Ā Alawi
ļæ¼Ā Aqrabi
ļæ¼Ā Dathina
ļæ¼Ā Shaib
ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of EgyptĀ (1914ā1922)
ļæ¼Ā ļæ¼Ā Anglo-Egyptian SudanĀ (1899ā1956) (condominium with Egypt)
Asia
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ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of MaldivesĀ (1887ā1965)[11]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of SikkimĀ (1861ā1947)[12]
Manipur KingdomĀ (1826ā1891)[13]
VariousĀ British RajĀ Princely StatesĀ (1845-1947) ā The princely states were lower in status than protectorates as the British reserved the right to interfere in internal matters under the principle ofĀ British Paramountcy.
Europe
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ļæ¼Ā British CyprusĀ (1871ā1914) (put under British military administration 1914ā22 then proclaimed aĀ Crown colonyĀ 1922ā60)
ļæ¼Ā ļæ¼Ā Malta ProtectorateĀ (1800ā1813);Ā ļæ¼Ā Crown Colony of MaltaĀ proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of theĀ Kingdom of SicilyĀ but under British protection)
ļæ¼Ā Ionian islandsĀ (1815ā1864) (aĀ GreekĀ stateĀ andĀ amical protectorateĀ of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
Sub-Saharan Africa
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ļæ¼Ā BarotselandĀ Protectorate (1900ā1964)
ļæ¼Ā Bechuanaland ProtectorateĀ (1885ā1966)
ļæ¼Ā British SomalilandĀ (1884ā1960)[10]
ļæ¼Ā East Africa ProtectorateĀ (1895ā1920)
ļæ¼Ā Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894ā1965)
ļæ¼Ā Kenya Protectorate* (1920ā1963)
ļæ¼Ā Nigeria* (1914-1960)
ļæ¼Ā Northern Nigeria ProtectorateĀ (1900ā1914)
ļæ¼Ā Northern RhodesiaĀ (1924ā1964)
ļæ¼Ā Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate)Ā (1901ā1957)
ļæ¼Ā Nyasaland ProtectorateĀ (1893ā1964) (ļæ¼Ā British Central Africa ProtectorateĀ until 1907)
ļæ¼Ā Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896ā1961)
ļæ¼Ā Southern Nigeria ProtectorateĀ (1900ā1914)
ļæ¼Ā SwazilandĀ (1903ā1968)
ļæ¼Ā Uganda ProtectorateĀ (1894ā1962)
ļæ¼Ā Walvis BayĀ (1878ā1884)
ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of ZanzibarĀ (1890ā1963)
*protectorates that existed alongside a colony of the same name
Oceania
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ļæ¼Ā Territory of PapuaĀ (1884ā1888)
ļæ¼Ā British Solomon IslandsĀ (1893ā1978)
ļæ¼Ā Cook IslandsĀ (1888ā1901)
ļæ¼Ā Gilbert and Ellice IslandsĀ (1892ā1916)
ļæ¼Ā NiueĀ (1900ā1901)
ļæ¼Ā TokelauĀ (1877ā1916)
List of former British protected states
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As protected states, the following states were never officially part of the British Empire and retained near-total control over internal affairs; however, the British controlled their foreign policy. Their status was rarely advertised while it was in effect, it becoming clear only after it was lifted.[2]
ļæ¼Ā BruneiĀ (1888ā1984)
ļæ¼Ā BhutanĀ (1910ā1947)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Cis-Sutlej states[15][16](Some states:1809ā1849; All states:1849-1947)
ļæ¼Ā Emirate of AfghanistanĀ (1879ā1919)[a][14]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of NepalĀ (1816ā1947)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of EgyptĀ (1922ā1952)[17]
ļæ¼Ā Federation of MalayaĀ (1948ā1957)
ļæ¼Ā Federated Malay StatesĀ (1895ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā Negeri SembilanĀ (1888ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā Sungai UjongĀ (1874ā1888)
ļæ¼Ā JelebuĀ (1886ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā PahangĀ (1888ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā PerakĀ (1874ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā SelangorĀ (1874ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā Unfederated Malay StatesĀ (1904/09ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā JohorĀ (1914ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā JohorĀ MuarĀ (1897ā1909)
ļæ¼Ā KedahĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā KelantanĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā PerlisĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā TerengganuĀ (1919ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā TongaĀ (1900ā1970)
ļæ¼Ā British Residency of the Persian GulfĀ (1822ā1971); headquarters based atĀ Bushire,Ā Persia
ļæ¼Ā PersiaĀ (1919ā1921)
ļæ¼Ā BahrainĀ (1880ā1971)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Sheikhdom of KuwaitĀ (1899ā1961)[14]
ļæ¼Ā QatarĀ (1916ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Trucial States; precursor state of theĀ UAEĀ (1892ā1971)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Abu DhabiĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā AjmanĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā DubaiĀ (1835ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā FujairahĀ (1952ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Ras Al KhaimahĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā SharjahĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā KalbaĀ (1936ā1951)
ļæ¼Ā Umm al-QaiwainĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Muscat and OmanĀ (1892ā1970) (informal)[18][2]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of SarawakĀ (1888ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā North BorneoĀ (1888ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of MaldivesĀ (1948-1965)
ļæ¼Ā SwazilandĀ (1967ā1968)
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If they delete comments like this in the 21st century then I don't want anyone from around the world or there children born here living in the uk or Europe anymore. Colonies where European most of the world is not and this is just British history. What kind of a future are we setting for ourselves in Europe the world around Europe is better then us now.
Ā @SketchyGhettoSpicĀ i hope this gets kept up colonies where European where governed by the European nations who colonies they where protocerates and mandated areas where different and where crested with the help of people there
British protectoratesĀ wereĀ protectoratesāorĀ client statesāunder protection of theĀ British Empire's armed forces and represented by British diplomats in international arenas, such as theĀ Great Game, in which theĀ Emirate of AfghanistanĀ and theĀ Tibetan KingdomĀ became protected states for short periods of time.[1]Ā Many territories which became British protectorates already had local rulers with whom the Crown negotiated through treaty, acknowledging their status whilst simultaneously offering protection, e.g.Ā British Paramountcy. British protectorates were therefore governed byĀ indirect rule. In most cases, the local ruler, as well as the subjects of the indigenous ruler were notĀ British subjects.Ā British protected statesĀ represented a more loose form of BritishĀ suzerainty, where the local rulers retained absolute control over the states' internal affairs and the British exercised control over defence and foreign affairs.[2]
Americas
edit
ļæ¼Ā BarbadosĀ (1627ā1652) (as aĀ proprietary colonyĀ underĀ William Courteen, followed byĀ James Hay I)
ļæ¼Ā Mosquito CoastĀ (1638ā1860) (over Central America'sĀ MiskitoĀ Indian nation)
Arab world
edit
ļæ¼Ā Aden ProtectorateĀ (1872ā1963); precursor state ofĀ South Yemen[10]
Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Haudhramaut); later theĀ Protectorate of South ArabiaĀ (1963ā1967)
ļæ¼Ā Kathiri
ļæ¼Ā Mahra
ļæ¼Ā Qu'aiti
ļæ¼Ā Upper YafaĀ (consisted of five Sheikhdoms:Ā Al-Busi,Ā Al-Dhubi,Ā Hadrami,Ā Maflahi, andĀ Mawsata)
ļæ¼Ā Hawra
ļæ¼Ā Irqa
Western Protectorate States; later theĀ Federation of South ArabiaĀ (1959/1962-1967), includingĀ Aden Colony
ļæ¼Ā Wahidi SultanatesĀ (these included:Ā Balhaf,Ā Azzan,Ā Bir Ali, andĀ Habban)
ļæ¼Ā Beihan
ļæ¼Ā DhalaĀ andĀ Qutaibi
ļæ¼Ā Fadhli
ļæ¼Ā Lahej
ļæ¼Ā Lower Yafa
ļæ¼Ā Audhali
ļæ¼Ā Haushabi
ļæ¼Ā Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom
ļæ¼Ā Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
ļæ¼Ā Lower Aulaqi
ļæ¼Ā Alawi
ļæ¼Ā Aqrabi
ļæ¼Ā Dathina
ļæ¼Ā Shaib
ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of EgyptĀ (1914ā1922)
ļæ¼Ā ļæ¼Ā Anglo-Egyptian SudanĀ (1899ā1956) (condominium with Egypt)
Asia
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ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of MaldivesĀ (1887ā1965)[11]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of SikkimĀ (1861ā1947)[12]
Manipur KingdomĀ (1826ā1891)[13]
VariousĀ British RajĀ Princely StatesĀ (1845-1947) ā The princely states were lower in status than protectorates as the British reserved the right to interfere in internal matters under the principle ofĀ British Paramountcy.
Europe
edit
ļæ¼Ā British CyprusĀ (1871ā1914) (put under British military administration 1914ā22 then proclaimed aĀ Crown colonyĀ 1922ā60)
ļæ¼Ā ļæ¼Ā Malta ProtectorateĀ (1800ā1813);Ā ļæ¼Ā Crown Colony of MaltaĀ proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of theĀ Kingdom of SicilyĀ but under British protection)
ļæ¼Ā Ionian islandsĀ (1815ā1864) (aĀ GreekĀ stateĀ andĀ amical protectorateĀ of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
Sub-Saharan Africa
edit
ļæ¼Ā BarotselandĀ Protectorate (1900ā1964)
ļæ¼Ā Bechuanaland ProtectorateĀ (1885ā1966)
ļæ¼Ā British SomalilandĀ (1884ā1960)[10]
ļæ¼Ā East Africa ProtectorateĀ (1895ā1920)
ļæ¼Ā Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894ā1965)
ļæ¼Ā Kenya Protectorate* (1920ā1963)
ļæ¼Ā Nigeria* (1914-1960)
ļæ¼Ā Northern Nigeria ProtectorateĀ (1900ā1914)
ļæ¼Ā Northern RhodesiaĀ (1924ā1964)
ļæ¼Ā Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate)Ā (1901ā1957)
ļæ¼Ā Nyasaland ProtectorateĀ (1893ā1964) (ļæ¼Ā British Central Africa ProtectorateĀ until 1907)
ļæ¼Ā Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896ā1961)
ļæ¼Ā Southern Nigeria ProtectorateĀ (1900ā1914)
ļæ¼Ā SwazilandĀ (1903ā1968)
ļæ¼Ā Uganda ProtectorateĀ (1894ā1962)
ļæ¼Ā Walvis BayĀ (1878ā1884)
ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of ZanzibarĀ (1890ā1963)
*protectorates that existed alongside a colony of the same name
Oceania
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ļæ¼Ā Territory of PapuaĀ (1884ā1888)
ļæ¼Ā British Solomon IslandsĀ (1893ā1978)
ļæ¼Ā Cook IslandsĀ (1888ā1901)
ļæ¼Ā Gilbert and Ellice IslandsĀ (1892ā1916)
ļæ¼Ā NiueĀ (1900ā1901)
ļæ¼Ā TokelauĀ (1877ā1916)
List of former British protected states
edit
As protected states, the following states were never officially part of the British Empire and retained near-total control over internal affairs; however, the British controlled their foreign policy. Their status was rarely advertised while it was in effect, it becoming clear only after it was lifted.[2]
ļæ¼Ā BruneiĀ (1888ā1984)
ļæ¼Ā BhutanĀ (1910ā1947)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Cis-Sutlej states[15][16](Some states:1809ā1849; All states:1849-1947)
ļæ¼Ā Emirate of AfghanistanĀ (1879ā1919)[a][14]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of NepalĀ (1816ā1947)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of EgyptĀ (1922ā1952)[17]
ļæ¼Ā Federation of MalayaĀ (1948ā1957)
ļæ¼Ā Federated Malay StatesĀ (1895ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā Negeri SembilanĀ (1888ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā Sungai UjongĀ (1874ā1888)
ļæ¼Ā JelebuĀ (1886ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā PahangĀ (1888ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā PerakĀ (1874ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā SelangorĀ (1874ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā Unfederated Malay StatesĀ (1904/09ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā JohorĀ (1914ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā JohorĀ MuarĀ (1897ā1909)
ļæ¼Ā KedahĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā KelantanĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā PerlisĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā TerengganuĀ (1919ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā TongaĀ (1900ā1970)
ļæ¼Ā British Residency of the Persian GulfĀ (1822ā1971); headquarters based atĀ Bushire,Ā Persia
ļæ¼Ā PersiaĀ (1919ā1921)
ļæ¼Ā BahrainĀ (1880ā1971)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Sheikhdom of KuwaitĀ (1899ā1961)[14]
ļæ¼Ā QatarĀ (1916ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Trucial States; precursor state of theĀ UAEĀ (1892ā1971)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Abu DhabiĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā AjmanĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā DubaiĀ (1835ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā FujairahĀ (1952ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Ras Al KhaimahĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā SharjahĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā KalbaĀ (1936ā1951)
ļæ¼Ā Umm al-QaiwainĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Muscat and OmanĀ (1892ā1970) (informal)[18][2]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of SarawakĀ (1888ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā North BorneoĀ (1888ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of MaldivesĀ (1948-1965)
ļæ¼Ā SwazilandĀ (1967ā1968)
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What a drag it is getting old
ā¦Ā "Kids are different today, " I hear every mother say
Mother needs something today to calm her down
And though she's not really ill, there's a little yellow pill
She goes running for the shelter of her mother's little helper
And it helps her on her way, gets her through her busy day
ā¦Ā "Things are different today, " I hear every mother say
Cooking fresh food for her husband's just a drag
So she buys an instant cake, and she burns a frozen steak
And goes running for the shelter of her mother's little helper
And two help her on her way, get her through her busy day
ā¦Ā Doctor, please, some more of these
Outside the door, she took four more
ā¦Ā What a drag it is getting old
ā¦Ā "Men just aren't the same today, " I hear every mother say
They just don't appreciate that you get tired
They're so hard to satisfy, you can tranquilize your mind
So go running for the shelter of a mother's little helper
ā¦Ā And four help you through the night, help to minimize your plight
ā¦Ā Doctor, please, some more of these
ā¦Ā Outside the door, she took four more
What a drag it is getting old
ā¦Ā "Life's just much too hard today, " I hear every mother say
The pursuit of happiness just seems a bore
And if you take more of those, you will get an overdose
No more running for the shelter of a mother's little helper
They just helped you on your way, through your busy dying day
Hey
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I want to know what happed in 1993 with the Abraham accords. You should have peace in Israel and Palestine then everyone was happy untill yathzik Rabin the Israeli prime minister got assisnated.
The Abraham Accords, Explained
On September 15, 2020, leaders across the Middle East signed the Abraham Accords. This landmark agreement normalized diplomatic relations between Israel and the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain, then later a renewal in ties with Morocco.Ā The Abraham Accords are a game changer in the Middle East, providing new opportunities for direct flights, people-to-people exchanges, business partnerships, and government agreements that have all led to investment and growth in the area.
Below youāll find a curated list of resources to help answer your questions regarding the Abraham Accords and their significance on the U.S., Israel, the Middle East, Europe, and the international Jewish community.
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Ā @dioghaltasfoirneartach7258Ā Autonomous administrative division
Article
Ā
Talk
Language
Watch
Edit
This article is about subnational administrative divisions which enjoy some degree of autonomy under the national government. For external territories which enjoy a greater degree of autonomy from their parent state and function asĀ de factoĀ independent political entities, seeĀ Dependent territory.
AnĀ autonomous administrative divisionĀ (also referred to as anĀ autonomous area,Ā zone,Ā entity,Ā unit,Ā region,Ā subdivision,Ā province, orĀ territory) is a subnationalĀ administrative divisionĀ orĀ internal territoryĀ of aĀ sovereign stateĀ that has a degree ofĀ autonomyĀ āĀ self-governanceĀ ā under the national government. Autonomous areas are distinct from other constituent units of aĀ federationĀ (e.g. a state, or province) in that they possess unique powers for their given circumstances. Typically, it is either geographically distinct from the rest of theĀ stateĀ or populated by a national minority, which may exerciseĀ home rule. Decentralization of self-governing powers and functions to such divisions is a way for a national government to try to increase democratic participation or administrative efficiency or to defuse internal conflicts. States that include autonomous areas may beĀ federacies,Ā federations, orĀ confederations. Autonomous areas can be divided intoĀ territorialĀ autonomies, subregional territorial autonomies, and local autonomies.
List of major autonomous areas
edit
See also:Ā List of autonomous areas by country
DivisionStateNotesļæ¼Ā Azad KashmirControlled by:Ā ļæ¼Ā Pakistan
Claimed by:Ā ļæ¼Ā IndiaAzad Kashmir is a self-governing polity which has not been formally annexed byĀ Pakistan. It was established after aĀ rebellion against the Maharajah of Kashmir, and the subsequentĀ First Kashmir War.[1]Ā It is located within the historicĀ KashmirĀ region, which isĀ disputedĀ betweenĀ India,Ā PakistanĀ andĀ China.
ļæ¼Ā Northern Ireland
ļæ¼Ā Scotland
ļæ¼Ā Wales
ļæ¼Ā United KingdomThree of the four constituentĀ countries of the United Kingdom, namelyĀ Scotland,Ā WalesĀ andĀ Northern Ireland, each have an elected,Ā devolvedĀ legislature which has the ability to legislate in devolved matters. TheĀ Parliament of the United KingdomĀ which retains sovereignty (the United Kingdom is aĀ unitary state), can dissolve the devolved legislatures at any time, and legislates in matters that are not devolved, as well as having the capacity to legislate in areas that are devolved (byĀ constitutional convention, without the agreement of the devolved legislature). Formerly, both Scotland and England were fully sovereign states.ļæ¼Ā City of LondonSui generisĀ City, the Lord Mayor is accorded precedence over all individuals except the sovereign and retains various traditional powers, rights, and privileges, including the title and style The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of London.
ļæ¼Ā Faroe Islands
ļæ¼Ā Greenland[2]
ļæ¼Ā DenmarkThe two autonomous territories[2]Ā (Danish:Ā land,Ā Faroese:Ā land,Ā Greenlandic:Ā nuna) of theĀ realmĀ of the Kingdom, theĀ Faroe IslandsĀ andĀ Greenland, each have an elected devolved legislature which has the ability to legislate in devolved matters. TheĀ Kingdom Parliament 'Folketinget'Ā retains sovereignty (The Kingdom of Denmark is aĀ unitary state) and legislates in matters that are not devolved, as well as having the capacity to legislate in areas that are devolved (this does not normally occur without the agreement of the devolved legislature).
Tobago
ļæ¼Ā Trinidad and TobagoTheĀ Tobago House of AssemblyĀ is a devolved legislature that is responsible for the island ofĀ Tobago.[3]ļæ¼Ā Vojvodinaļæ¼Ā SerbiaKosovoĀ /Ā Autonomous Province of Kosovo and MetohijaClaimed by:Ā ļæ¼Ā Serbia
Controlled by:Ā ļæ¼Ā KosovoIn 2008,Ā KosovoĀ unilaterally declaredĀ itself as an independent state. Its internationalĀ recognitionĀ is split between those who recognize it as an independent state and those who view it as an autonomous province ofĀ SerbiaĀ underĀ United NationsĀ administration.ļæ¼Ā Ć
landļæ¼Ā Finland
ļæ¼Ā Azores
ļæ¼Ā Madeira
ļæ¼Ā PortugalAlthough Portugal is an unitary state, its two autonomous regions have elected,Ā devolvedĀ legislatures (Regional Legislative Assemblies of the AzoresĀ andĀ Madeira) and local government (Governments of the AzoresĀ andĀ Madeira) which have the ability to legislate in devolved matters.ļæ¼Ā Bangsamoroļæ¼Ā Philippinesļæ¼Ā Bougainvilleļæ¼Ā Papua New Guinea
ļæ¼Ā Hong Kong
ļæ¼Ā Macau
ļæ¼Ā Guangxi Zhuang AR
ļæ¼Ā Inner Mongolia AR
ļæ¼Ā Ningxia Hui AR
ļæ¼Ā TibetāXizang AR
ļæ¼Ā Xinjiang Uygur AR
ļæ¼Ā People's Republic of China
ļæ¼Ā Puntland
ļæ¼Ā Jubaland
ļæ¼Ā Hirshabelle
ļæ¼Ā Galmudug
ļæ¼Ā Somaliland
ļæ¼Ā Koofur Orsi
ļæ¼Ā SomaliaSomalilandĀ is aĀ self-declared independent state, although it is internationally considered an autonomous region in northwesternĀ Somalia.ļæ¼Ā AtlĆ”ntico Norteļæ¼Ā Nicaraguaļæ¼Ā AtlĆ”ntico Surļæ¼Ā Rodriguesļæ¼Ā Mauritiusļæ¼Ā Autonomous Administration of North and East Syriaļæ¼Ā Syriaļæ¼Ā Zanzibarļæ¼Ā Tanzaniaļæ¼Ā Nakhchivanļæ¼Ā Azerbaijanļæ¼Ā Adjaraļæ¼Ā GeorgiaAbkhaziaĀ /Ā ļæ¼Ā Autonomous Republic of AbkhaziaDe jure:Ā ļæ¼Ā Georgia
Controlled by:Ā ļæ¼Ā AbkhaziaIn 1999, theĀ Republic of AbkhaziaĀ declared its independence from Georgia after theĀ 1992ā1993 war. Georgia and most of the U.N. member states have not recognized Abkhazia's independence and still has an administrative apparatus for the claimed Autonomous Republic; its independence isĀ recognized by Russia and three otherĀ U.N. member states.Gorno-Badakhshanļæ¼Ā Tajikistanļæ¼Ā Republic of CrimeaĀ /ļæ¼Ā Autonomous Republic of CrimeaDe jure:Ā ļæ¼Ā Ukraine
Controlled by:Ā ļæ¼Ā RussiaTheĀ 2014 annexation of Crimea by RussiaĀ isĀ not recognizedĀ by most countries, including Ukraine.ļæ¼Ā Karakalpakstanļæ¼Ā Uzbekistanļæ¼Ā Gagauziaļæ¼Ā MoldovaTransnistriaĀ /Ā Left Bank of the DniesterClaimed by:Ā ļæ¼Ā Moldova
Controlled by:Ā ļæ¼Ā TransnistriaIn 1990, theĀ Pridnestrovian Moldavian RepublicĀ (PMR, commonly known as Transnistria) declared its independence from theĀ Soviet Union. While Moldova has not formally recognized Transnistria's independence and still has an administrative apparatus for the claimed Autonomous Territorial Unit, its independence isĀ recognized by 3 otherĀ non-UN member states.
ļæ¼Ā Republika Srpska
ļæ¼Ā Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
ļæ¼Ā Bosnia and Herzegovina
ļæ¼Ā Easter Island
ļæ¼Ā Juan FernĆ”ndez Islands
ļæ¼Ā ChileIn 2007, theĀ Chamber of Deputies of ChileĀ passed a law designating both as "special territories", granting them moreĀ autonomy.[4]Ā Additionally, the Juan Fernandez Islands archipelago is aĀ commune, while Easter Island is both a commune and aĀ province.ļæ¼Ā BarbudaĀ (1976)ļæ¼Ā Antigua and Barbudaļæ¼Ā Rotumaļæ¼Ā Fijiļæ¼Ā Kurdistan RegionĀ (2005)ļæ¼Ā IraqSemi-autonomous federal subject of Iraq; the constitution of Iraq gives a degree of autonomy to regions andĀ provincesĀ in matters not defined as exclusively federal, i.e. matters that are not within the exclusive remit of the federal government of Iraq. Furthermore, outside of the aforementioned exclusive federal matters, regional or provincial law takes priority (in case of dispute) as long as the regional or provincial law is in accordance with the provisions of the constitution of Iraq.[5]Ā Nevertheless, the authority to interpret the provisions of the constitution, and oversee the constitutionality of all laws and regulations, and settle disputes that arise between the federal, provincial, and regional governmentsāincluding by repealing any regional or provincial law that is deemed unconstitutionalābelongs exclusively to theĀ Federal Supreme Court of Iraq.[6]ļæ¼Ā NevisĀ (1967)ļæ¼Ā Saint Kitts and Nevisļæ¼Ā Autonomous Region of PrĆncipeĀ (1995)ļæ¼Ā SĆ£o TomĆ© and PrĆncipeļæ¼Ā Svalbardļæ¼Ā NorwayAlthough it does not fit the definition of autonomous area (not possessing partial internal sovereignty), Svalbard has the sovereignty of Norway limited by theĀ Spitsbergen Treaty of 1920Ā and therefore is considered as having special status (as it is considered fully integrated with Norway, and not a dependency, it is aĀ sui generisĀ case).ļæ¼Ā Heligolandļæ¼Ā GermanyHeligoland, Germany: Although it is part of a German state,Ā Schleswig-Holstein, it has been excluded of some European Union normatives, such as customs union and theĀ Value Added Tax Area.ļæ¼Ā BĆ¼singen am HochrheinDespite being integral parts of their respective countries, these two enclaves of Switzerland predominantly use theĀ Swiss francĀ as currency and are in customs union with Switzerland.ļæ¼Ā Campione d'Italiaļæ¼Ā Italy
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The modern Middle East's political borders, much of its state structure, and even its economic systems are deeply rooted inĀ European colonial influence and the aftermath of World War I. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the subsequent partitioning of its territories by European powers shaped the current landscape of the region.Ā
Here's a more detailed breakdown:
Ottoman Empire's Collapse:
After World War I, the Ottoman Empire, which had controlled vast territories in the Middle East for centuries, was defeated and dismantled.Ā
European Mandates and Imperial Control:
The British and French, along with other European powers, took control of these territories, establishing mandates and directly intervening in the region.Ā
Sykes-Picot Agreement:
This secret agreement, made between Britain and France, played a crucial role in dividing the Ottoman Empire's territories, setting the stage for the creation of modern nation-states in the Middle East.Ā
Creation of Modern States:
The European powers drew arbitrary borders, creating countries like Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine.Ā
Economic Systems and Infrastructure:
European powers implemented their own economic systems and built infrastructure in the region, further shaping the trajectory of its development.
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I think this was your problems with the Germans or like other colonies and settlements you became nations see it doesn't make sense historically why you have problems in Palestine and why no one else will take you
AI Overview
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
+1
Before World War I, Palestine was made up of several Ottoman provinces, and there were also German and other colonies in the region:Ā
German colonies
Christoph Hoffmann and Georg David Hardegg founded the Templer colonies in Palestine, including the Templer Colony in Haifa, the Jaffa colony, and the German Colony in Jerusalem.Ā
Jewish immigration
The First Aliyah, or "agriculture aliyah," was the first wave of Zionist immigration to Palestine, with 25,000 to 35,000 Jews immigrating between 1882 and 1903.Ā
Ottoman authorities
In 1892, the Ottoman authorities banned land sales to foreigners due to concerns about the loyalty of the new immigrants and the potential threat to Turkish control in the region.Ā
ļæ¼
The Ottoman Empire was eventually broken up, and Palestine became a British-administered territory under the League of Nations.Ā The British Mandate for Palestine was established in 1920, and the British administered the territory until 1947.
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Ā @ARCofRESISTANCEĀ the big question of the middle east is where the Bedouin went to some do live in Israel some don't and those who do live in occupation alone asqa mosque was a place every religion could pray they even cut that off so people can't communicate I guess now.
AI Overview
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Bedouin people have been present in Europe in a number of ways, including as migrants and through international advocacy campaigns:Ā
Migrants
Bedouin people have migrated to Europe, often facing many risks and dangers along the way.Ā For example, Abdullah al Badri, a 27-year-old from Kuwait, spent several years migrating to Europe.Ā He said he left his country because he didn't have status, freedom, or the right to choose.Ā
International advocacy
The European Union has supported international advocacy campaigns to prevent the displacement of Bedouin communities in the West Bank.Ā For example, the EU has participated in Ramadan iftars with students and families from Bedouin communities.Ā
Support for Bedouin villages
Activists have shown support for Bedouin villages threatened with demolition by spending nights in the villages.Ā For example, activists slept on mattresses in the front yard of an Italian-funded school in Khan al-Ahmar.Ā
Bedouin people are a nomadic group who have traditionally herded livestock across the Middle East.Ā However, their nomadic culture is threatened by industrialization and mineral exploitation.Ā Many Bedouin people are now seeking employment instead of living off their herds. Not every Bedouin supported the ottoman empire like everyone living under the ottoman empire wasn't against the west.
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
Ā
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ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
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Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
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ļæ¼
Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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Empire and the Making of the Modern World, 1650-2000
About the Series
This monograph series seeks to explore the complexities of the relationships among empires, modernity and global history. In so doing, it wishes to challenge the orthodoxy that the experience of modernity was located exclusively in the west, and that the non-western world was brought into the modern age through conquest, mimicry and association. To the contrary, modernity had its origins in the interaction between the two worlds.
In this sense the imperial experience was not an adjunct to western modernization, but was constitutive of it. Thus the origins of the defining features of modernity - the bureaucratic state, market economy, governance, and so on - have to be sought in the imperial encounter, as do the categories such as race, sexuality and citizenship which constitute the modern individual. This necessarily complicates perspectives on the nature of the relationships between the western and non-western worlds, nation and empire, and 'centre' and 'periphery'.
To examine these issues the series presents work that is interdisciplinary and comparative in its approach; in this respect disciplines including economics, geography, literature, politics, intellectual history, anthropology, science, legal studies, psychoanalysis and cultural studies have much potential, and will all feature. Equally, we consider race, gender and class vital categories to the study of imperial experiences. We aim, therefore, to provide a forum for dialogues among different modes of writing the histories of empires and the modern. Much valuable work on empires is currently undertaken outside the western academy and has yet to receive due attention. This is an imbalance the series intends to address and so we are particularly interested in contributions from such scholars. Also important to us are transnational and comparative perspectives on the imperial experiences of western and non-western worlds.
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Ā @jpshshswĀ TheĀ Partition of the Ottoman EmpireĀ (30 October 1918Ā ā 1 November 1922) was a geopolitical event that occurred afterĀ World War IĀ and theĀ occupation of ConstantinopleĀ byĀ British,Ā French, andĀ ItalianĀ troops in November 1918. TheĀ partitioningĀ was planned in several agreements made by theĀ Allied PowersĀ early in the course ofĀ World War I,[1]Ā notably theĀ SykesāPicot Agreement, after theĀ Ottoman EmpireĀ had joinedĀ GermanyĀ to form theĀ OttomanāGerman alliance.[2]Ā The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several newĀ states.[3]Ā The Ottoman Empire had been the leadingĀ Islamic stateĀ inĀ geopolitical,Ā cultural, andĀ ideologicalĀ terms. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after the war led to the domination of theĀ Middle EastĀ by Western powers such as Britain and France, and saw the creation of the modernĀ Arab worldĀ and the Republic ofĀ Turkey. Resistance to the influence of these powers came from theĀ Turkish National MovementĀ but did not become widespread in the other post-Ottoman states until the period of rapid decolonization afterĀ World War II.
British Foreign Office memorandum, 1927 version of theĀ Treaty of SĆØvres sykesāPicot agreement, Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon,Ā Mandatory PalestineĀ and theĀ Emirate of Transjordan
The sometimes-violent creation ofĀ protectoratesĀ inĀ IraqĀ andĀ Palestine, and the proposed division ofĀ SyriaĀ along communal lines, is thought to have been a part of the larger strategy of ensuring tension in the Middle East, thus necessitating the role of Western colonial powers (at that time Britain, France and Italy) as peace brokers and arms suppliers.[4]Ā TheĀ League of Nations mandateĀ granted theĀ French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, theĀ British Mandate for MesopotamiaĀ (laterĀ Iraq) and theĀ British Mandate for Palestine, later divided intoĀ Mandatory PalestineĀ and theĀ Emirate of TransjordanĀ (1921ā1946). The Ottoman Empire's possessions in theĀ Arabian PeninsulaĀ became theĀ Kingdom of Hejaz, which theĀ Sultanate of NejdĀ (todayĀ Saudi Arabia) was allowed to annex, and theĀ Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. The Empire's possessions on the western shores of theĀ Persian GulfĀ were variously annexed by Saudi Arabia (al-AhsaĀ andĀ Qatif), or remainedĀ British protectoratesĀ (Kuwait,Ā Bahrain, andĀ Qatar) and became theĀ Arab States of the Persian Gulf.
After the Ottoman government collapsed completely, its representatives signed theĀ Treaty of SĆØvresĀ in 1920, which would have partitioned much of the territory of present-day Turkey among France, the United Kingdom, Greece and Italy. TheĀ Turkish War of IndependenceĀ forced the Western European powers to return to the negotiating table before the treaty could be ratified. The Western Europeans and theĀ Grand National Assembly of TurkeyĀ signed and ratified the newĀ Treaty of LausanneĀ in 1923, superseding the Treaty of SĆØvres and agreeing on most of the territorial issues.[5]
One unresolved issue, the dispute between theĀ Kingdom of IraqĀ and the Republic of Turkey overĀ the former province of Mosul, was later negotiated under the auspices of theĀ League of NationsĀ in 1926. The British and French partitioned theĀ region of SyriaĀ between them in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. Other secret agreements were concluded with Italy and Russia.[6]Ā The internationalĀ ZionistĀ movement, after their successful lobbying for theĀ Balfour Declaration, encouraged the push for aĀ JewishĀ homeland inĀ Palestine. While a part of theĀ Triple Entente, Russia also had wartimeĀ agreementsĀ preventing it from participating in the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after theĀ Russian Revolution. The Treaty of SĆØvres formally acknowledged the new League of Nations mandates in the region, the independence ofĀ Yemen, and British sovereigntyĀ over Cyprus.
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TheĀ Crimean War[d]Ā was fought from October 1853 to February 1856[6]Ā between theĀ Russian EmpireĀ and an ultimately victorious alliance of theĀ Ottoman Empire,Ā France, theĀ United Kingdom, andĀ Sardinia-Piedmont.
Crimean WarPart of theĀ Ottoman wars in EuropeĀ and theĀ Russo-Turkish Warsļæ¼
Attack on the Malakoff, byĀ William SimpsonDate16Ā OctoberĀ 1853Ā ā 30Ā MarchĀ 1856
(2 years, 5 months and 2 weeks)Location
Crimea,Ā North Caucasus,Ā Balkans,Ā Black Sea,Ā Baltic Sea,Ā White Sea,Ā Far East
ResultAllied victoryTerritorial
changesRussia loses theĀ Danube DeltaĀ andĀ Southern Bessarabia.Belligerentsļæ¼Ā Ottoman Empire
ļæ¼Ā France[a]
ļæ¼Ā United Kingdom[a]
ļæ¼Ā Sardinia[b]
ļæ¼Ā Russiaļæ¼Ā Greece[c]Commanders and leaders
ļæ¼Ā Abdulmejid I
ļæ¼Ā Omar Pasha
ļæ¼Ā NapolĆ©on III
ļæ¼Ā J. L. de Saint-Arnaud
ļæ¼Ā George Hamilton-Gordon
ļæ¼Ā Lord Palmerston
ļæ¼Ā FitzRoy Somerset
ļæ¼Ā Alfonso La Marmora
ļæ¼Ā Nicholas I
ļæ¼Ā Alexander II
ļæ¼Ā Prince Menshikov
ļæ¼Ā Prince Gorchakov
ļæ¼Ā Pavel NakhimovĀ ā
StrengthTotal: 673,900
ļæ¼Ā 235,568[1]
ļæ¼Ā 309,268[2]
ļæ¼Ā 97,864[2]
ļæ¼Ā 21,000[2]Total: 889,000[2]
ļæ¼
888,000 mobilised
324,478 deployedCasualties and losses
Total: 165,363ā223,000[3]Ā dead
45,770 combat deaths
119,593 non-combat deaths
ļæ¼Ā 45,400 dead[2]
20,900 combat deaths
24,500 non-combat deaths
ļæ¼Ā 95,615 dead[2]
20,240 combat deaths
75,375 non-combat deaths
ļæ¼Ā 22,182 dead[2]
4,602 combat deaths
17,580 non-combat deaths
ļæ¼Ā 2,166 dead[2]
28 combat deaths
2,138 non-combat deaths
Total: 450,015 dead[4][2][5]
73,125 combat deaths
376,890 non-combat deathsCasualties include death by disease. In all cases, death by disease exceeded the sum of "killed in action" or "died of wounds".
Geopolitical causes of the war included theĀ decline of the Ottoman EmpireĀ (the "Eastern Question"), the expansion of Russia in the precedingĀ Russo-Turkish Wars, and the British and French preference to preserve the Ottoman Empire to maintain theĀ balance of powerĀ in theĀ Concert of Europe. The flashpoint was a disagreement over the rights of Christian minorities inĀ Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire, with the French promoting the rights ofĀ Roman Catholics, and Russia promoting those of theĀ Eastern Orthodox Church.[7]
The churches worked out their differences with the Ottomans andĀ came to an agreement, but both theĀ French EmperorĀ Napoleon IIIĀ and the Russian tsarĀ Nicholas IĀ refused to back down. Nicholas issued an ultimatum that demanded theĀ Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman EmpireĀ be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise to which Nicholas agreed. When the Ottomans demanded changes to the agreement, Nicholas recanted and prepared for war.
In July 1853, Russian troops occupied theĀ Danubian Principalities[6]Ā (now part ofĀ RomaniaĀ but then under OttomanĀ suzerainty). On 16 October Ā [O.S.Ā 4 October]Ā 1853,[8]Ā having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia.[9]Ā Led byĀ Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the Russian advance atĀ SilistraĀ (now inĀ Bulgaria). A separate action on the fort town ofĀ Kars, in the Ottoman Empire, led to a siege, and an Ottoman attempt to reinforce the garrison was destroyed by a Russian fleet at theĀ Battle of SinopĀ in November 1853.
Fearing the growth of influence of the Russian Empire, the British and French fleets entered theĀ Black SeaĀ in January 1854.[6]Ā They moved north toĀ VarnaĀ in June 1854 and arrived just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. In theĀ Baltic, near the Russian capital ofĀ Saint Petersburg, an Anglo-French fleet instituted a naval blockade and bottled up the outnumbered RussianĀ Baltic Fleet, causing economic damage to Russia by blockading trade while also forcing the Russians to keep a large army guarding St. Petersburg from a potential allied attack.
After a minor skirmish at Kƶstence (nowĀ ConstanČa), the allied commanders decided to attack Russia's main naval base in the Black Sea,Ā Sevastopol, inĀ Crimea. After extended preparations, allied forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and marched their way to a point south of Sevastopol after they had won theĀ Battle of the AlmaĀ on 20 September 1854. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became theĀ Battle of BalaclavaĀ and were repulsed, but theĀ British Army's forces were seriously depleted as a result. A second Russian counterattack atĀ InkermanĀ ended in a stalemate.
By 1855, the Italian Kingdom of Sardinia sent anĀ expeditionary forceĀ to Crimea, siding with France, Britain and the Ottoman Empire. The front settled into theĀ Siege of Sevastopol, involving brutal conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller military actions took place in theĀ CaucasusĀ (1853ā1855), theĀ White SeaĀ (JulyāAugust 1854) and theĀ North PacificĀ (1854ā1855).
Sevastopol finally fell after eleven months, after the FrenchĀ assaulted Fort Malakoff. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion by the West if the war continued, RussiaĀ sued for peaceĀ in March 1856. France and Britain welcomed the development, owing to the conflict's domestic unpopularity. TheĀ Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, ended the war. It forbade Russia to base warships in the Black Sea. The OttomanĀ vassal statesĀ ofĀ WallachiaĀ andĀ MoldaviaĀ became largely independent. Christians in the Ottoman Empire gained a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute.[10]
The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts in which military forces used modern technologies such as explosive navalĀ shells,Ā railwaysĀ andĀ telegraphs.[11]Ā The war was also one of the first to be documented extensively in written reports and inĀ photographs. The war quickly became a symbol of logistical, medical and tactical failures and of mismanagement. The reaction in Britain led to a demand for the professionalisation of medicine, most famously achieved byĀ Florence Nightingale, who gained worldwide attention for pioneering modernĀ nursingĀ while she treated the wounded.
The Crimean War marked a turning point for the Russian Empire. The war weakened theĀ Imperial Russian Army, drained the treasury and undermined Russia's influence in Europe. The empire would take decades to recover. Russia's humiliation forced its educated elites to identify its problems and recognise the need for fundamental reforms. They saw rapid modernisation as the sole way to recover the empire's status as aĀ European power. The war thus became a catalyst forĀ reforms of Russia's social institutions, including theĀ abolition of serfdomĀ and overhauls in the justice system, local self-government, education and military service
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From the American government learn about the assination of yatzhik Rabin to it's that led to a new round of protests because Israelis and Palestinans where happy with this stop supporting politicians and leaders who are not worth it this has gone on 100 years and many nations in the middle east and Arab world got independence from us in the UK or France or European nations before ww1 .
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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By 1911, the British Empire had a Muslim population of 94 million, larger than the empire's 58 million Christian population.[27]Ā By the 1920s, the British Empire included roughly half of the world's Muslim population.[26]Ā More than 400,000 Muslim soldiers of theĀ British Indian ArmyĀ fought for Britain duringĀ World War I, where 62,060 were killed in action.[39]Ā Muslim soldiers of the British Indian Army later fought for Britain against theĀ NazisĀ inĀ World War II,[40]Ā where Muslim soldiers accounted for up to 40%[41]Ā of the 2.5 million troops serving the British Indian Army.[42]Ā David Lloyd George,Ā British Prime MinisterĀ from 1916 to 1922, stated: "we are the greatestĀ MahomedanĀ power in the world and one-fourth of the population of the British Empire is Mahomedan. There have been no more loyal adherents to the throne and no more effective and loyal supporters of the Empire in its hour of trial." This statement was later reiterated byĀ GandhiĀ in 1920.[25]Ā Winston ChurchillĀ also stated in 1942: "We must not on any account break with the Moslems, who represent a hundred million people, and the main army elements on which we must rely for the immediate fighting."[41]
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Ā @curiositycloset2359Ā
I hope that these comments remain
ifx like the British empire most of the world's Muslim population was living under us before ww1 the population had grown since then and today they try to make everyone look the same Muslims from Russia and the middle east have nothing in common with those under the empire that's where the problems stem from for everyone
Ā The many efforts to revive and resist were largely unsuccessful. By 1818Ā BritishĀ hegemonyĀ overĀ IndiaĀ was complete, and many other colonies andĀ mandatesĀ followed between then and the aftermath ofĀ World War I. Not all Muslim territories were colonized, but nearly all experienced some kind of dependency, be it psychological, political, technological, cultural, or economic. Perhaps only the Saudi regime in the central parts of the Arabian Peninsula could be said to have escaped any kind of dependency, but even there oil exploration, begun in the 1930s, brought European interference. In the 19th century Westernization and Islamic activism coexisted and competed. By the turn of the 20th centuryĀ secularĀ ethnicĀ nationalismĀ had become the most common mode of protest in Islamdom, but the spirit of Islamic reconstruction was also kept alive, either in conjunction with secularĀ nationalismĀ or in opposition to it
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WHENĀ first the sun oāer ocean glowād,
And earth unveilād her virgin breast,
Supreme mid natureās vast abode,
Was heard the Almightyās dread behest,
Rise, Columbia, Columbia, brave and free,
Poise the globe and bound the sea.
In darkness wrappād, with fetters chainād,
Will ages grope, debased and blind;
With blood the human hand be stainād,
With tyrant power, the human mind.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
But, lo! across the Atlantic floods
The star-directed pilgrim sails;
See! fellād by Commerce, float thy woods;
And clothed by Ceres, wave thy vales!
Rise, Columbia, &c.
In vain shall thrones, in arms combined,
The sacred rights I gave, oppose;
In thee, the asylum of mankind,
Shall welcome nations find repose.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
Nor yet, though skillād, delight in arms;
Peace, and her offspring Arts, be thine:
The face of Freedom scarce has charms,
When, on her cheeks, no dimples shine.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
While Fame, for thee, her wreath entwines,
To bless, thy nobler triumphs prove;
And though the eagle haunts thy pines,
Beneath thy willows shield the dove.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
When bolts the flame, or whelms the wave,
Be thine to rule the wayward hour:
Bid death unbar the watery grave,
And Vulcan yield to Neptuneās power.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
Revered in arms, in peace humane:
No shore nor realm shall bound thy sway,
While all the virtues own thy reign,
And subject elements obey!
Rise, Columbia, brave and free,
Bless the globe, and rule the sea!
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WHENĀ first the sun oāer ocean glowād,
And earth unveilād her virgin breast,
Supreme mid natureās vast abode,
Was heard the Almightyās dread behest,
Rise, Columbia, Columbia, brave and free,
Poise the globe and bound the sea.
In darkness wrappād, with fetters chainād,
Will ages grope, debased and blind;
With blood the human hand be stainād,
With tyrant power, the human mind.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
But, lo! across the Atlantic floods
The star-directed pilgrim sails;
See! fellād by Commerce, float thy woods;
And clothed by Ceres, wave thy vales!
Rise, Columbia, &c.
In vain shall thrones, in arms combined,
The sacred rights I gave, oppose;
In thee, the asylum of mankind,
Shall welcome nations find repose.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
Nor yet, though skillād, delight in arms;
Peace, and her offspring Arts, be thine:
The face of Freedom scarce has charms,
When, on her cheeks, no dimples shine.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
While Fame, for thee, her wreath entwines,
To bless, thy nobler triumphs prove;
And though the eagle haunts thy pines,
Beneath thy willows shield the dove.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
When bolts the flame, or whelms the wave,
Be thine to rule the wayward hour:
Bid death unbar the watery grave,
And Vulcan yield to Neptuneās power.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
Revered in arms, in peace humane:
No shore nor realm shall bound thy sway,
While all the virtues own thy reign,
And subject elements obey!
Rise, Columbia, brave and free,
Bless the globe, and rule the sea!
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IslamĀ is theĀ second-largest religionĀ inĀ EuropeĀ afterĀ Christianity.[2]Ā Although the majority of Muslim communities inĀ Western EuropeĀ formed as a result of immigration,[3]Ā there are centuries-oldĀ indigenous EuropeanĀ Muslim communities in theĀ Balkans,Ā Caucasus,Ā Crimea, andĀ Volga region.[4][5][6][7]Ā The term "Muslim Europe" is used to refer to the Muslim-majority countries in the Balkans and the Caucasus (Albania,Ā Bosnia and Herzegovina,Ā Kosovo,Ā Turkey, andĀ Azerbaijan)[8]Ā and parts of countries inĀ Eastern EuropeĀ with sizable Muslim minorities (Bulgaria,Ā Montenegro,Ā North Macedonia,[9]Ā and someĀ republicsĀ ofĀ Russia) that constitute large populations ofĀ indigenous EuropeanĀ Muslims,[4][5][6][8]Ā although the majority areĀ secular.[4][5][8][10]
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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Ā @angelh3771Ā Based on 2020 American Community Survey estimates, 1,934,397 individuals identified as having British ancestry, while a further 25,213,619 identified as having English ancestry, 5,298,861 Scottish ancestry and 1,851,256 Welsh ancestry. The total of these groups, at 34,298,133, wasĀ 10.5%Ā of the total population.
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Based on 2020 American Community Survey estimates, 1,934,397 individuals identified as having British ancestry, while a further 25,213,619 identified as having English ancestry, 5,298,861 Scottish ancestry and 1,851,256 Welsh ancestry. The total of these groups, at 34,298,133, wasĀ 10.5%Ā of the total population.
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Ā @alibabathegreat8113Ā Protectorate
Article
Ā
Talk
Language
Watch
Edit
For the 17th-century British protectorate, seeĀ The Protectorate.
Not to be confused withĀ Protecting power.
AĀ protectorate, in the context of international relations, is aĀ stateĀ that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law.[1]Ā It is aĀ dependent territoryĀ that enjoysĀ autonomyĀ over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing theĀ suzeraintyĀ of a more powerfulĀ sovereign stateĀ without being a possession.[2][3][4]Ā In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement.[4]Ā Usually protectorates are establishedĀ de jureĀ by aĀ treaty.[2][3]Ā Under certain conditionsāas withĀ Egypt under British rule (1882ā1914)āa state can also be labelled as aĀ de facto protectorateĀ or aĀ veiled protectorate.[5][6][7]
A protectorate is different from aĀ colonyĀ as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiencesĀ colonizationĀ by the suzerain state.[8][9]Ā A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its "international personality" is called a "protected state", not a protectorate.[10][a]
History
Typology
Argentina's protectorates
Brazil's protectorates
British Empire's protectorates and protected states
edit
Main article:Ā British protectorate
Americas
edit
ļæ¼Ā MosquitiaĀ (1638ā1860; over Central America'sĀ MiskitoĀ Indian nation)
Europe
edit
ļæ¼Ā ļæ¼Ā Malta ProtectorateĀ (1800ā1813);Ā ļæ¼Ā Crown Colony of MaltaĀ proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of theĀ Kingdom of SicilyĀ but under British protection)
ļæ¼Ā Ionian islandsĀ (1815ā1864) (aĀ GreekĀ stateĀ and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
ļæ¼Ā British CyprusĀ (1878ā1914) (put under British military administration 1914ā22 then proclaimed a Crown Colony 1922ā60)
South Asia
edit
ļæ¼Ā Cis-Sutlej states[21][22]Ā (1809ā1862)
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of NepalĀ (1816ā1923; protected state)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of SikkimĀ (1861ā1947), (1947ā1972)[23]
ļæ¼Ā Maldive IslandsĀ (1776ā1965), (1965ā1968), (1968ā1990)[24]
ļæ¼Ā Emirate of AfghanistanĀ (1879ā1919; protected state)[14]
ļæ¼Ā AfghanistanĀ (1919ā1947, 1948, 1950, 1956)
VariousĀ British RajĀ Princely StatesĀ (1845ā1947)
ļæ¼Ā BhutanĀ (1906ā1947, 1948; protected state)[14]
Western Asia
edit
ļæ¼Ā British Residency of the Persian GulfĀ (1822ā1971); headquarters based inĀ Bushire,Ā Persia
ļæ¼Ā Bahrain, protected state (1880ā1971)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Sheikhdom of Kuwait, protected state (1899ā1961)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Qatar, protected state (1916ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Trucial States; precursor state of theĀ UAE, protected states (1892ā1971)[14]
ļæ¼Ā Abu DhabiĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā AjmanĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā DubaiĀ (1835ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā FujairahĀ (1952ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Ras Al KhaimahĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā SharjahĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā KalbaĀ (1936ā1951)
ļæ¼Ā Umm al-QaiwainĀ (1820ā1971)
ļæ¼Ā Muscat and OmanĀ (1892ā1971; informal, protected state)[25][26]
ļæ¼Ā Aden ProtectorateĀ (1872ā1963); precursor state ofĀ South Yemen[27]
Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Hadhramaut); later theĀ Protectorate of South ArabiaĀ (1963ā1967)
ļæ¼Ā Kathiri
ļæ¼Ā Mahra
ļæ¼Ā Qu'aiti
ļæ¼Ā Upper YafaĀ (consisted of five Sheikhdoms:Ā Al-Busi,Ā Al-Dhubi,Ā Hadrami,Ā Maflahi, andĀ Mawsata)
ļæ¼Ā Hawra
ļæ¼Ā Irqa
Western Protectorate States; later theĀ Federation of South ArabiaĀ (1959/1962ā1967), includingĀ Aden Colony
ļæ¼Ā Wahidi SultanatesĀ (these included:Ā Balhaf,Ā Azzan,Ā Bir Ali, andĀ Habban)
ļæ¼Ā Beihan
ļæ¼Ā DhalaĀ andĀ Qutaibi
ļæ¼Ā Fadhli
ļæ¼Ā Lahej
ļæ¼Ā Lower Yafa
ļæ¼Ā Audhali
ļæ¼Ā Haushabi
ļæ¼Ā Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom
ļæ¼Ā Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
ļæ¼Ā Lower Aulaqi
ļæ¼Ā Alawi
ļæ¼Ā Aqrabi
ļæ¼Ā Dathina
ļæ¼Ā Shaib
Africa
edit
ļæ¼1960 stamp ofĀ Bechuanaland ProtectorateĀ with the portraits ofĀ Queen VictoriaĀ andĀ Queen Elizabeth II
ļæ¼Ā British SomalilandĀ (1884ā1960)[27]
ļæ¼Ā Bechuanaland ProtectorateĀ (1885ā1966)
ļæ¼Ā BarotselandĀ Protectorate (1889ā1964)
ļæ¼Ā Nyasaland ProtectorateĀ (1893ā1964) (ļæ¼Ā British Central Africa ProtectorateĀ from 1889 until 1907)
ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of ZanzibarĀ (1890ā1963)
Sultanate of Wituland (1890ā1923)
ļæ¼Ā Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894ā1965)
ļæ¼Ā Uganda ProtectorateĀ (1894ā1962)
ļæ¼Ā East Africa ProtectorateĀ (1895ā1920)
ļæ¼Ā Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896ā1961)
ļæ¼Ā Nigeria* (1914ā1960)
ļæ¼Ā Northern Nigeria ProtectorateĀ (1900ā1914)
ļæ¼Ā SwazilandĀ (1903ā1968)
ļæ¼Ā Southern Nigeria ProtectorateĀ (1900ā1914)
ļæ¼Ā Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate)Ā (1901ā1957)
ļæ¼Ā Sultanate of EgyptĀ (1914ā1922)
ļæ¼Ā Kenya Protectorate* (1920ā1963)
ļæ¼Ā Kingdom of EgyptĀ (1922ā1936)
ļæ¼Ā Northern RhodesiaĀ (1924ā1964)
*protectorates which existed alongside a colony of the same name
De facto
edit
ļæ¼Ā Khediviate of EgyptĀ (1882ā1913)
Oceania
edit
ļæ¼Ā Territory of PapuaĀ (1884ā1888)
ļæ¼Ā TokelauĀ (1877ā1916)
ļæ¼Ā Cook IslandsĀ (1888ā1893)
ļæ¼Ā Gilbert and Ellice IslandsĀ (1892ā1916)
ļæ¼Ā British Solomon IslandsĀ (1893ā1978)
ļæ¼Ā NiueĀ (1900ā1901)
ļæ¼Ā TongaĀ (1900ā1970)
East and Southeast Asia
edit
ļæ¼Ā British North BorneoĀ (1888ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā BruneiĀ (1888ā1984)
ļæ¼Ā Raj of SarawakĀ (1888ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā Federation of MalayaĀ (1948ā1957)
ļæ¼Ā Federated Malay StatesĀ (1895ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā Negeri SembilanĀ (1888ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā Sungai UjongĀ (1874ā1888)
ļæ¼Ā JelebuĀ (1886ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā PahangĀ (1888ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā PerakĀ (1874ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā SelangorĀ (1874ā1895)
ļæ¼Ā Unfederated Malay StatesĀ (1904/09ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā JohorĀ (1914ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā JohorĀ MuarĀ (1897ā1909)
ļæ¼Ā KedahĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā KedahĀ KulimĀ (1894ā1909)
ļæ¼Ā KelantanĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā PerlisĀ (1909ā1946)
ļæ¼Ā TerengganuĀ (1909ā1946)
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Ā @alibabathegreat8113Ā The Collapse of the Soviet Union
After his inauguration in January 1989,Ā George H.W. BushĀ did not automatically follow the policy of his predecessor,Ā Ronald Reagan, in dealing withĀ Mikhail GorbachevĀ and the Soviet Union. Instead, he ordered a strategic policy re-evaluation in order to establish his own plan and methods for dealing with the Soviet Union and arms control.
Boris Yeltsin makes a speech from atop a tank in front of the Russian parliament building in Moscow, U.S.S.R., Monday, Aug. 19, 1991. (AP Photo)
Conditions in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, however, changed rapidly. Gorbachevās decision to loosen the Soviet yoke on the countries of Eastern Europe created an independent, democratic momentum that led to the collapse of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, and then the overthrow of Communist rule throughout Eastern Europe. While Bush supported these independence movements, U.S. policy was reactive. Bush chose to let events unfold organically, careful not to do anything to worsen Gorbachevās position.
With the policy review complete, and taking into account unfolding events in Europe, Bush met with Gorbachev at Malta in early December 1989. They laid the groundwork for finalizing START negotiations, completing the Conventional Forces in Europe treaty, and they discussed the rapid changes in Eastern Europe. Bush encouraged Gorbachevās reform efforts, hoping that the Soviet leader would succeed in shifting the USSR toward a democratic system and a market oriented economy.
Peristoika and giasnost really this should have been the end of 100 years of problems since ww1 really but now the EU is at logger heats with Putin whose not the president of Russia the country really he's at logger heads with the president of the EU an organisation that has done nothing for Europe while America and Russia decide our futures here
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Why Was Korea Divided?
In August 1945, the two allies āin name onlyā (as Robinson puts it) divided control over the Korean Peninsula. Over the next three years (1945-48), the Soviet Army and its proxies set up a communist regime in the area north of latitude 38Ė N, or the 38th parallel. South of that line, a military government was formed, supported directly by the United States.
While the Soviet policies were widely popular with the bulk of the Northās laborer and peasant population, most middle-class Koreans fled south of the 38th parallel, where the majority of the Korean population resides today. Meanwhile, the U.S.-supported regime in the South clearly favored anti-communist, rightist elements, according to Robinson.
āThe ultimate objective was for the Soviet Union and the United States to leave, and let the Koreans figure it out,ā he explains. āThe trouble was that the Cold War intervenedā¦.And everything that was tried to create a middle ground or to try to reunify the peninsula is thwarted by both the Soviet Union and the United States not wanting to give in to the other.ā
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248 years later it seems the revolutionary war the American civil war then us Brits coming back to spank your bums in the Napoleonic wars was all a waste of time now.
The Declaration of Independence
Throughout the 1760s and early 1770s, the North American colonists found themselves increasingly at odds with British imperial policies regardingĀ taxationĀ andĀ frontier policy. When repeated protests failed to influence British policies, and instead resulted in the closing of the port of Boston and the declaration of martial law inĀ Massachusetts, the colonial governments sent delegates to aĀ Continental CongressĀ to coordinate a colonial boycott of British goods. When fighting broke out between American colonists and British forces in Massachusetts, the Continental Congress worked with local groups, originally intended to enforce the boycott, to coordinate resistance against the British. British officials throughout the colonies increasingly found their authority challenged by informal local governments, although loyalist sentiment remained strong in some areas.
Despite these changes, colonial leaders hoped to reconcile with the British Government, and all but the most radical members of Congress were unwilling to declare independence. However, in late 1775, Benjamin Franklin, then a member of the Secret Committee of Correspondence, hinted to French agents and other European sympathizers that the colonies were increasingly leaning towards seeking independence. While perhaps true, Franklin also hoped to convince the French to supply the colonists with aid. Independence would be necessary, however, before French officials would consider the possibility of an alliance.
Throughout the winter of 1775ā1776, the members of the Continental Congress came to view reconciliation with Britain as unlikely, and independence the only course of action available to them. When on December 22, 1775, the British Parliament prohibited trade with the colonies, Congress responded in April of 1776 by opening colonial portsāthis was a major step towards severing ties with Britain. The colonists were aided by the January publication ofĀ Thomas Paineās pamphletĀ Common Sense, which advocated the coloniesā independence and was widely distributed throughout the colonies. By February of 1776, colonial leaders were discussing the possibility of forming foreign alliances and began to draft theĀ Model TreatyĀ that would serve as a basis for the 1778 alliance with France. Leaders for the cause of independence wanted to make certain that they had sufficient congressional support before they would bring the issue to the vote. On June 7, 1776,Ā Richard Henry LeeĀ introduced a motion in Congress to declare independence. Other members of Congress were amenable but thought some colonies not quite ready. However, Congress did form a committee to draft a declaration of independence and assigned this duty toĀ Thomas Jefferson.
ļæ¼
Thomas Paine
Benjamin FranklinĀ andĀ John AdamsĀ reviewed Jeffersonās draft. They preserved its original form, but struck passages likely to meet with controversy or skepticism, most notably passages blaming KingĀ George IIIĀ for the transatlantic slave trade and those blaming the British people rather than their government. The committee presented the final draft before Congress on June 28, 1776, and Congress adopted the final text of the Declaration of Independence on July 4.
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Updated 31 May 2024
Thirty-four charges, one often exasperated judge and a parade of witnesses.
After two days of deliberations, 12 New Yorkers found Donald Trump guilty of all charges in his hush-money case.
It is a history-making verdict following a history-making trial. Trump is now the first former US president with a criminal conviction, and the first major party candidate to run for the White House as a felon.
So what happens next?
Here are some key issues to consider.
LIVE UPDATES: Reaction and analysis
Can he still run for president?
Yes. The US Constitution sets out relatively few eligibility requirements for presidential candidates: they must be at least 35, be a ānatural bornā US citizen and have lived in the US for at least 14 years. There are no rules blocking candidates with criminal records.
But this guilty verdict still could sway Novemberās presidential election. A pollĀ from Bloomberg and Morning Consult earlier this yearĀ found that 53% of voters in key swing states would refuse to vote for the Republican if he were convicted.
Another poll,Ā from Quinnipiac University this month, showed 6% of Trump voters would be less likely to vote for him - consequential in such a tight race.
What happens to Trump now?
Trump has been free on bail throughout the trial and this did not change after the verdict was read on Thursday - the Republican was released on his own recognisance.
He will return to court on 11 July - the date Justice Juan Merchan has scheduled for a sentencing hearing.
But Trump said Friday his team will ask Justice Merchan for a different day, as the selected date is four days before the start of the Republican National Convention.
Regardless of the date, the judge will have several factors to consider in sentencing, including Trumpās age.
The sentence could involve a fine, probation or supervision, or possibly prison time.
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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Below are lists of the countries and territories that were formerly ruled or administered by theĀ United KingdomĀ or part of theĀ British EmpireĀ (including military occupations that did not retain the pre-war central government), with theirĀ independence days. Some countries did not gain their independence on a single date, therefore the latest day of independence is shown with a breakdown of dates further down. A total of 65 countries have claimed their independence from theĀ British Empire/United Kingdom.[1]Ā Note that theĀ CommonwwealthĀ including "independent" dominions was still an organization of the British Empire until the 1949Ā London Declaration
Afghanistan19 August1919Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919[2]ļæ¼Ā Antigua and BarbudaAntigua, Leeward Islands[a]1 November1981Antigua Termination of Association Order[3]ļæ¼Ā BahrainBritish Protectorate Of Bahrain15 August1971Now an independent kingdom outside the Commonwealth.ļæ¼Ā Barbados30 November1966Barbados Independence Act 1966Ā - now an independentĀ republic in the Commonwealth of NationsĀ since 30 November 2021.ļæ¼Ā BelizeBritish Honduras21 September1981September Celebrations[4]ļæ¼Ā BotswanaBechuanaland30 September1966Botswana Independence Act 1966[5]ļæ¼Ā Brunei1 January1984[6]ļæ¼Ā Cyprus16 August1960Cyprus Independence DayĀ is commonly celebrated on 1 October.[7]ļæ¼Ā DominicaDominica, Windward Islands[a]3 November1978ļæ¼Ā Egypt28 February1922Control over the Suez Canal Zone was maintained until 1956.ļæ¼Ā Eswatini6 September1968Initially called Swaziland, which was also its pre-independence name. Renamed eSwatini byĀ King Mswati IIIĀ in April 2018.ļæ¼Ā Fiji10 October1970Fiji has been a Commonwealth republic since 1997.ļæ¼Ā GhanaGold Coast,Ā British TogolandĀ (Togoland got absorbed into the Gold Coast in 1957)6 March1957Became a Commonwealth republic on 1 July 1960.ļæ¼Ā GrenadaGrenada, Windward Islands[a]7 February1974Independence Day (Grenada)ļæ¼Ā GuyanaBritish Guiana26 May1966Became a republic in 1970.ļæ¼Ā IndiaBritish India15 August1947Indian Independence Act 1947[8]ļæ¼Ā Iraq3 October1932Pursuant to theĀ British Mandate for Mesopotamiaļæ¼Ā IsraelMandatory Palestine14 May1948End of British mandate
ļæ¼Ā PalestineĀ declared independenceĀ from Israel on 15 November 1988.ļæ¼Ā Jamaica6 August1962Independence Day (6 August)ļæ¼Ā JordanTransjordan25 May1946Now an independent monarchy outside the Commonwealth.ļæ¼Ā Kenya12 December1963Dominion of KenyaĀ declared in 1963. Republic declared exactly 1 year later.ļæ¼Ā KiribatiGilbert and Ellice Islands12 July1979ļæ¼Ā KuwaitBritish kuwaiti Protectorate19 June1961Now an independent monarchy outside the Commonwealth.ļæ¼Ā LesothoBasutoland4 October1966Now an independent monarchy inside the Commonwealth.ļæ¼Ā Libya24 December1951From 1943 to 1951 Libya was under the control of Britain and France. On 24 December 1951, Libya declared its independence and became the UnitedĀ Kingdom of Libya.ļæ¼Ā MalawiNyasaland6 July1964Dominion of MalawiĀ declared in 1964. Republic declared exactly 2 years later.ļæ¼Ā Malaya31 August1957Federation of Malaya Independence Act 1957.ļæ¼Ā Maldives26 July1965Became an independent kingdom outside the Commonwealth in 1965. Became a republic in 1968. Became a Commonwealth republic in 1982. Temporarily a republic outside the Commonwealth from 2016 until 1 February 2020, when the Maldives returned.ļæ¼Ā Malta21 September1964This occurred in spite of theĀ 1956 Maltese United Kingdom integration referendum, but in accordance withĀ 1964 Maltese constitutional referendum. Malta became a republic on 13 December 1974.ļæ¼Ā Mauritius12 March1968Dominion of MauritiusĀ declared in 1968. Republic declared in 1992.ļæ¼Ā Myanmar4 January1948Gained independence as a republic outside the Commonwealth as Burma. Renamed Myanmar by the military dictatorship in 1989, but still officially known by the United Kingdom government as Burma.ļæ¼Ā Nauru31 January1968
Ā Nigeria1 October1960Took inĀ Northern Cameroonsļæ¼Ā OmanSultanate of Muscat and Oman20 December1970Now an independent monarchy outside the Commonwealth.ļæ¼Ā PakistanBritish India14 August1947Partition of India
ļæ¼Ā BangladeshĀ gained independence from Pakistan on 26 March 1971.ļæ¼Ā QatarBritish Qatari Protectorate3 September1971Now an independent monarchy outside the Commonwealth.ļæ¼Ā Saint LuciaSt Lucia, Windward Islands[a]22 February1979ļæ¼Ā Saint Kitts and NevisSt KittsāNevis and Anguilla, Leeward Islands[a]19 September1983ļæ¼Ā Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesSt Vincent, Windward Islands[a]27 October1979Ā Ā Seychelles29 June1976Ā Ā Sierra Leone27 April1961Dominion of Sierra LeoneĀ declared in 1961. Republic declared in 1971.Ā Ā Solomon IslandsBritish Solomon Islands7 July1978Ā Ā SomalilandBritish Somaliland Protectorate26 June1960The British Somaliland Protectorate gained independence on 26 June 1960 then united with the Trust Territory of Somalia on 1 July 1960 to form theĀ Somali Republic, but later broke away and unilaterally declared independence in 1991, which is internationally unrecognised.Ā Ā South YemenProtectorate of South Arabia
Federation of South Arabia30 November1967Merged withĀ Ā Ā North YemenĀ to formĀ Ā Ā YemenĀ in 1990Ā Ā Sri LankaCeylon4 February1948Gained independence as theĀ Dominion of Ceylon. Renamed Sri Lanka in 1972 upon being declared a republic.Ā Ā Sudan1 January1956Ā Ā South SudanĀ gained independence from Sudan on 9 July 2011.Ā Ā Tanganyika9 December1961Tanganyika became independent on 9 December 1961. It joined withĀ ZanzibarĀ on 25 April 1964 to formĀ Ā Ā Tanzania.Ā Ā The Bahamas10 July1973Bahamas Independence Act 1973[9]Ā Ā The GambiaGambia18 February1965Gained independence as a Dominion. Republic declared in 1970. Temporarily became a republic outside the Commonwealth from 2013 to 8 February 2018, when it returned.Ā Ā Tonga4 June1970Ā Ā Trinidad and Tobago31 August1962Independence Day (August 31st)[10]Ā Ā TuvaluGilbert and Ellice Islands1 October1978Ā Ā Uganda9 October1962Ā Ā United Arab EmiratesTrucial States2 December1971National Day (United Arab Emirates)Ā Ā United StatesThirteen American Colonies4 July1776Fourth of July.Ā Declaration of IndependenceĀ from theĀ Kingdom of Great BritainĀ in 1776. British government recognized independence in 1783 with theĀ Treaty of Paris.Ā Ā VanuatuNew Hebrides30 July1980Independence fromĀ United KingdomĀ andĀ FranceĀ in 1980. Vanuatu is a Commonwealth republic.Ā Ā ZambiaNorthern Rhodesia24 October1964Ā Ā Zanzibar10 December1963Zanzibar became independent on 10 December 1963.Ā Sultanate of ZanzibarĀ overthrown in theĀ Zanzibar Revolution, which created a short-lived republic. It joined with Tanganyika on 25 April 1964 to formĀ Ā Ā Tanzania.Ā Ā ZimbabweSouthern RhodesiaĀ andĀ Rhodesia18 April1980
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Don't delete these comments but this was Europe before ww1 what has happend to us. Why are our leaders in Europe so hellbent on destroying our history culture way of life why do they want to make things difficult for people from all over the world living here in the 21st century when the modern world around Europe actually stems from our history here. Europe doesn't make sense anymore.
While the constitution of nation-states was a key feature of nineteenth-century Europe, a number of multinational empires endured until the aftermath of the First World War, including some of the continentās greatest powers: the Russian Empire, the Habsburg Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the German Empire. This national pluralism was not managed in the same way in all places, and depended on the numerical, economic, and cultural importance of the nationalities in question. Similarly, the policy of central authorities with respect to them varied from one state to another and one from monarch to another, ranging between liberalism and heightened repression. The century was punctuated by armed revolts by national groups against imperial authority, which in the Ottoman Empire chiefly led to independence (Greece, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria), whereas the uprisings of the Poles of Russia were brutally suppressed. Of these four empires only the Soviet Union, the empire of the tsars, remained a multinational entity after the Great War.
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
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British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
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British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
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Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
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Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
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Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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The Romanian state was formed in 1859 through aĀ personal unionĀ of theĀ Danubian PrincipalitiesĀ ofĀ MoldaviaĀ andĀ Wallachia. The new state, officially named Romania since 1866, gained independence from theĀ Ottoman EmpireĀ in 1877. DuringĀ World War I, after declaring itsĀ neutralityĀ in 1914, RomaniaĀ foughtĀ together with theĀ Allied PowersĀ from 1916. In the aftermath of the war,Ā Bukovina,Ā Bessarabia,Ā Transylvania, and parts ofĀ Banat,Ā CriČana, andĀ MaramureČĀ became part of theĀ Kingdom of Romania.[1]Ā In JuneāAugustĀ 1940, as a consequence of theĀ MolotovāRibbentrop PactĀ andĀ Second Vienna Award, Romania was compelled to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to theĀ Soviet UnionĀ andĀ Northern TransylvaniaĀ to Hungary. In NovemberĀ 1940, Romania signed theĀ Tripartite PactĀ and, consequently, in JuneĀ 1941 enteredĀ World War IIĀ on theĀ Axis side,Ā fighting against the Soviet UnionĀ until AugustĀ 1944, when itĀ joinedĀ theĀ AlliesĀ and recovered Northern Transylvania.
Following the war and occupation by theĀ Red Army, Romania became aĀ socialist republicĀ and a member of theĀ Warsaw Pact. After theĀ 1989Ā Revolution, RomaniaĀ began a transitionĀ towardsĀ democracyĀ and aĀ market economy.
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Ā @curtiscarpenter9881Ā The first reliable mention of contact between Russian and Korean people dates back to as early as the17th century. However, these contacts were episodic until the emergence of a land border between the Russian Empire and the Joseon Kingdom in the second half of the 19th century, following the accession of the Ussuri krai region to the Russian Empire under the Treaty of Aigun in 1858 and the Treaty of Peking in 1860. Soon after, Korean peasants began to move on a massive scale into Russian āPrimoryeā. It is with these peasants that the formation of a large Korean diaspora in Russia began.
The beginning of this migration is considered to have started in the 1860s. Researchers have not arrived at a consensus regarding the specific date but according to the officially held point of view shared by many Koreanists both in Russia and abroad, the first Korean families appeared in the territory of the Russian Far East in 1863. As many as 13 families secretly escaped from Korea and settled in the basin of the river Tizinhe. Lack of land and natural disasters forced Korean peasants to move to Russia in several waves from the very moment that a common border with Russia was set up, and up until official diplomatic relations between the two countries were established in 1884. Vladivostok, which was founded in 1860 almost simultaneously with the beginning of the events described above, became one of the destinations of these migrations.
According to V.V. Grave (a Russian foreign affairs official), Korean people had begun to appear in small numbers in Vladivostok and Ussuri krai even before 1863. During the mass migration of Korean peasants in 1869-1870, Rear Admiral I.V. Furuhjelm (Governor-General of the Primorskaya Oblast) gave the order that permitted Korean people to work as laborers in the building of a dock in Vladivostok, and for the Treasury to pay all of their transportation costs and other necessary expenses.
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By 1876, a significant number of Korean people had settled down in Vladivostok and local authorities decided to resettle them from the center of the growing city to its suburbs. The Koreans chose the marshy area of āāSemyonovsky pokos as the site of their compact residence, part of which was called āKoreyskaya slobodkaā (Korean settlement). However, it was later decided to move all āforeigners of the yellow raceā out of the Vladivostok to the Kuperovskaya pad (valley). The plan for the creation of āKitaysko-Koreyskaya slobodkaā (Chinese-Korean settlement) near the Kuperovskaya pad (where Khabarovskaya and Amurskaya streets are presently located) was approved in 1892 by the Governor-General of the Primorskaya Oblast P. F. Unterberger. Koreans followed the authoritiesā orders, while the Chinese did not. Soon afterwards, Korean-style houses appeared in the place known as āNovaya Koreyskaya slobodkaā (New Korean settlement or Shinhanchon).Ā
In terms of the number of Korean people officially residing in Vladivostok, we know that the Korean population of Vladivostok totaled 420 in 1886 but increased to 457 by 1892.[1]Ā During the First General Population Census of the Russian Empire in 1897 there were already 1,361 (1,032 men and 329 women) Korean residents in Vladivostok (the total population of which was 28,896)[2], and this number increased to 3,215 (2,138 men and 1,079 women) by 1910.[3]Ā The number of Koreans increased significantly following the annexation of Korea by Japan; in 1911 it reached approximately 10,000 in Vladivostok alone[4]. We can assume that this number remained more or less stable until the deportation of the Korean people to Central Asia, since the Korean population in Vladivostok was 7,994 people (4,236 men and 3,758 women) according to the 1929 Population Census ā among these Koreans, only 3,408 individuals were still living in Novaya Koreyskaya slobodka[5].
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The Koreans of the time tried not to mingle with other ethnic groups. Unlike the Chinese, Koreans preferred to marry within their own ethnic group, thereby preserving the purity of their race. And unlike the Chinese, Koreans were often accompanied by their families when moving to Vladivostok, even for temporary earnings. Therefore, as mentioned by F. F. Busse, it was impossible to expect the assimilation of Koreans by the Russian majority or even their partial ārussificationā. In his letter to the Minister of Internal Affairs on 8 March 1908, Governor-General of Primorskaya Oblast P.F. Unterberger remarked that the Koreans, who had lived in the Ussuri krai for more than 40 years, with few exceptions, retained their ethnicity to the fullest extent and remaind āalien peopleā within the boundaries of Russia.
Unfortunately, the sad events of 1937 ā the deportation of Korean people to Central Asia ā interrupted the further development of the Korean community in Vladivostok. However, even after the deportation of almost every Korean from Vladivostok, the historical memories of their presence continue to exist amongst the indigenous inhabitants of Vladivostok, even to this day. Parts of Khabarovskaya Street and Amurskaya Street are still called āKoreykaā and even āVerhnaya Koreykaā and āNizhnyaya Koreykaā are still distinguished.
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In 1993, the Oslo Accords were signed, but they didn't lead to a lasting peace in Palestine.Ā While the accords aimed to establish an interim framework for self-government, they ultimately fell short of a comprehensive resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.Ā Several factors contributed to this failure, including:Ā
1. Lack of a Clear Two-State Solution: The accords didn't explicitly define the goal of a two-state solution, leaving room for ambiguity about the future status of Palestine.Ā
2. Power Imbalance and US Intervention: The negotiation framework favored Israel, a powerful, nuclear-armed nation, over stateless Palestinians under occupation.Ā The U.S., a major backer of Israel, also failed to act as a neutral mediator.Ā
3. Israeli Expansion of Settlements: Israel continued to expand settlements in the West Bank, undermining any progress toward a land-based peace agreement and creating "facts on the ground".Ā
4. Violent Opposition: Right-wing Israeli extremists, who opposed any negotiations with the Palestinians, further undermined the peace process with acts of violence, including the assassination of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.Ā
5. Internal Palestinian Divisions: Groups like Hamas opposed the Oslo Accords and engaged in attacks against Israelis, further hindering the peace process.Ā
6. Lack of Regional Consensus: There wasn't a clear Arab consensus on linking regional issues like security and economics to the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations, allowing Israel to potentially gain what it wanted without making significant concessions.Ā
7. Failure to Address Key Issues: The accords failed to address critical issues like the status of East Jerusalem, the right of return for Palestinian refugees, and the ongoing issue of Palestinian sovereignty, leading to the continuation of the conflict.
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Us Brits want to bring the British empire back and the empires of western Europe we think that the world was a much safer and happier place than before the world turned into what it is today and the people in control of this planet took control today.
Make America great again and Europe vote for the British colonial party
TheĀ British EmpireĀ comprised theĀ dominions,Ā colonies,Ā protectorates,Ā mandates, and otherĀ territoriesĀ ruled or administered by theĀ United KingdomĀ and its predecessor states. It began with theĀ overseas possessionsĀ andĀ trading postsĀ established byĀ EnglandĀ in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was theĀ largest empire in historyĀ and, for a century, was the foremost global power.[1]Ā By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412Ā million people,Ā 23Ā percent of the world population at the time,[2]Ā and by 1920, it covered 35.5Ā millionĀ km2Ā (13.7Ā millionĀ sqĀ mi),[3]Ā 24Ā per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result,Ā its constitutional,Ā legal,Ā linguistic, andĀ culturalĀ legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.[4]
British Empire
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Left:Ā Flag of Great BritainĀ (1707ā1801)
Right:Ā Flag of the United KingdomĀ (1801āpresent)
ļæ¼
Areas of the world that were part of the British Empire with currentĀ British Overseas TerritoriesĀ underlined in red. Mandates and protected states are shown in a lighter shade.
During theĀ Age of DiscoveryĀ in the 15th and 16th centuries,Ā PortugalĀ andĀ SpainĀ pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated,[5]Ā England,Ā France, and theĀ NetherlandsĀ began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in theĀ AmericasĀ andĀ Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following theĀ 1707 Act of UnionĀ with Scotland) the dominantĀ colonial powerĀ inĀ North America. Britain became a major power in theĀ Indian subcontinentĀ after theĀ East India Company'sĀ conquestĀ ofĀ Mughal BengalĀ at theĀ Battle of PlasseyĀ in 1757.
TheĀ American War of IndependenceĀ resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. While retaining control ofĀ British North AmericaĀ (nowĀ Canada) and territories in and near theĀ CaribbeanĀ in theĀ British West Indies, British colonial expansion turned towards Asia,Ā Africa, and theĀ Pacific. After the defeat of France in theĀ Napoleonic WarsĀ (1803ā1815), Britain emerged as the principalĀ navalĀ and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory inĀ Southeast Asia. The "Great Game" and "Scramble for Africa" also ensued. The period of relative peace (1815ā1914) during which the British Empire became the globalĀ hegemonĀ was later described asĀ Pax BritannicaĀ (Latin for "British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade, and of its oceans, meant that it effectivelyĀ controlled the economies of, and readily enforced its interests in, many regions, such as Asia andĀ Latin America.[6]Ā It also came to dominate theĀ Middle East. Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its whiteĀ settler colonies, some of which were formally reclassified asĀ DominionsĀ by the 1920s. By the start of the 20th century,Ā GermanyĀ and theĀ United StatesĀ had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military, economic and colonial tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of theĀ First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power.
In theĀ Second World War, Britain's colonies inĀ East AsiaĀ andĀ Southeast AsiaĀ were occupied by theĀ Empire of Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain andĀ its allies, the damage to British prestige and the British economy helped accelerate the decline of the empire.Ā India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achievedĀ independenceĀ in 1947 as part of a largerĀ decolonisationĀ movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. TheĀ Suez CrisisĀ of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and theĀ handover of Hong Kong to ChinaĀ on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire,[7]Ā though fourteenĀ overseas territoriesĀ that are remnants of the empire remain underĀ British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined theĀ Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom,Ā retain the same person as monarch, currently KingĀ Charles III.
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Us Brits want to bring the British empire back and the empires of western Europe we think that the world was a much safer and happier place than before the world turned into what it is today and the people in control of this planet took control today.
Make America great again and Europe vote for the British colonial party
TheĀ British EmpireĀ comprised theĀ dominions,Ā colonies,Ā protectorates,Ā mandates, and otherĀ territoriesĀ ruled or administered by theĀ United KingdomĀ and its predecessor states. It began with theĀ overseas possessionsĀ andĀ trading postsĀ established byĀ EnglandĀ in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was theĀ largest empire in historyĀ and, for a century, was the foremost global power.[1]Ā By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412Ā million people,Ā 23Ā percent of the world population at the time,[2]Ā and by 1920, it covered 35.5Ā millionĀ km2Ā (13.7Ā millionĀ sqĀ mi),[3]Ā 24Ā per cent of the Earth's total land area. As a result,Ā its constitutional,Ā legal,Ā linguistic, andĀ culturalĀ legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was described as "the empire on which the sun never sets", as the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.[4]
British Empire
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Left:Ā Flag of Great BritainĀ (1707ā1801)
Right:Ā Flag of the United KingdomĀ (1801āpresent)
ļæ¼
Areas of the world that were part of the British Empire with currentĀ British Overseas TerritoriesĀ underlined in red. Mandates and protected states are shown in a lighter shade.
During theĀ Age of DiscoveryĀ in the 15th and 16th centuries,Ā PortugalĀ andĀ SpainĀ pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated,[5]Ā England,Ā France, and theĀ NetherlandsĀ began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in theĀ AmericasĀ andĀ Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following theĀ 1707 Act of UnionĀ with Scotland) the dominantĀ colonial powerĀ inĀ North America. Britain became a major power in theĀ Indian subcontinentĀ after theĀ East India Company'sĀ conquestĀ ofĀ Mughal BengalĀ at theĀ Battle of PlasseyĀ in 1757.
TheĀ American War of IndependenceĀ resulted in Britain losing some of its oldest and most populous colonies in North America by 1783. While retaining control ofĀ British North AmericaĀ (nowĀ Canada) and territories in and near theĀ CaribbeanĀ in theĀ British West Indies, British colonial expansion turned towards Asia,Ā Africa, and theĀ Pacific. After the defeat of France in theĀ Napoleonic WarsĀ (1803ā1815), Britain emerged as the principalĀ navalĀ and imperial power of the 19th century and expanded its imperial holdings. It pursued trade concessions in China and Japan, and territory inĀ Southeast Asia. The "Great Game" and "Scramble for Africa" also ensued. The period of relative peace (1815ā1914) during which the British Empire became the globalĀ hegemonĀ was later described asĀ Pax BritannicaĀ (Latin for "British Peace"). Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its colonies, its dominance of much of world trade, and of its oceans, meant that it effectivelyĀ controlled the economies of, and readily enforced its interests in, many regions, such as Asia andĀ Latin America.[6]Ā It also came to dominate theĀ Middle East. Increasing degrees of autonomy were granted to its whiteĀ settler colonies, some of which were formally reclassified asĀ DominionsĀ by the 1920s. By the start of the 20th century,Ā GermanyĀ and theĀ United StatesĀ had begun to challenge Britain's economic lead. Military, economic and colonial tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of theĀ First World War, during which Britain relied heavily on its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on its military, financial, and manpower resources. Although the empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the First World War, Britain was no longer the world's preeminent industrial or military power.
In theĀ Second World War, Britain's colonies inĀ East AsiaĀ andĀ Southeast AsiaĀ were occupied by theĀ Empire of Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain andĀ its allies, the damage to British prestige and the British economy helped accelerate the decline of the empire.Ā India, Britain's most valuable and populous possession, achievedĀ independenceĀ in 1947 as part of a largerĀ decolonisationĀ movement, in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. TheĀ Suez CrisisĀ of 1956 confirmed Britain's decline as a global power, and theĀ handover of Hong Kong to ChinaĀ on 1 July 1997 symbolised for many the end of the British Empire,[7]Ā though fourteenĀ overseas territoriesĀ that are remnants of the empire remain underĀ British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies, along with most of the dominions, joined theĀ Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. Fifteen of these, including the United Kingdom,Ā retain the same person as monarch, currently KingĀ Charles III.
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When Britain first, at Heaven's command
Arose from out the azure main;
This was the charter of the land,
And guardian angels sung this strain:
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
The nations, not so blest as thee,
Must, in their turns, to tyrants fall;
While thou shalt flourish great and free,
The dread and envy of them all.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
Still more majestic shalt thou rise,
More dreadful, from each foreign stroke;
As the loud blast that tears the skies,
Serves but to root thy native oak.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
Thee haughty tyrants ne'er shall tame:
All their attempts to bend thee down,
Will but arouse thy generous flame;
But work their woe, and thy renown.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
To thee belongs the rural reign;
Thy cities shall with commerce shine:
All thine shall be the subject main,
And every shore it circles thine.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
The Muses, still with freedom found,
Shall to thy happy coast repair;
Blest Isle! With matchless beauty crown'd,
And manly hearts to guard the fair.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
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IslamĀ is theĀ second-largest religionĀ inĀ EuropeĀ afterĀ Christianity.[2]Ā Although the majority of Muslim communities inĀ Western EuropeĀ formed as a result of immigration,[3]Ā there are centuries-oldĀ indigenous EuropeanĀ Muslim communities in theĀ Balkans,Ā Caucasus,Ā Crimea, andĀ Volga region.[4][5][6][7]Ā The term "Muslim Europe" is used to refer to the Muslim-majority countries in the Balkans and the Caucasus (Albania,Ā Bosnia and Herzegovina,Ā Kosovo,Ā Turkey, andĀ Azerbaijan)[8]Ā and parts of countries inĀ Eastern EuropeĀ with sizable Muslim minorities (Bulgaria,Ā Montenegro,Ā North Macedonia,[9]Ā and someĀ republicsĀ ofĀ Russia) that constitute large populations ofĀ indigenous EuropeanĀ Muslims,[4][5][6][8]Ā although the majority areĀ secular.[4][5][8][10]
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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Muslims were involved in many aspects of the British Empire, including:Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British Empire and the Muslim world
The British Empire included more than half of the world's Muslim population by the 1920s.Ā The British Empire's involvement in the Muslim world began in the 18th century, with the East India Company gaining the right to administer justice and raise revenue in Bengal.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
British people converting to Islam
Some British people, including aristocrats, converted to Islam during the Victorian era.Ā Marmaduke Pickthall, an English writer and novelist, became the first British Muslim to translate the Qur'an into English in 1930. Lady Evelyn Cobbold became the first Western woman to make the Hajj pilgrimage in 1933.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslims in the British military
Many Muslims fought for the United Kingdom in World Wars I and II, with some being awarded the Victoria Cross.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
Muslim migrants to Britain
After the Partition of India in 1947, many Muslims from what is now India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh settled in Britain.Ā Many doctors from India and Pakistan were recruited to help establish the NHS.Ā
Ā
ļæ¼
ļæ¼
Muslim contribution to Britain's war effort
Muslim merchant seamen served the Allies during World War II, traveling to the US and Russia to deliver food.Ā The Force K6, an all-Muslim Punjabi regiment, escaped from Dunkirk and served in Britain.
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ise, Columbia
Robert Treat Paine, Jr. (1773ā1811)
WHENĀ first the sun oāer ocean glowād,
And earth unveilād her virgin breast,
Supreme mid natureās vast abode,
Was heard the Almightyās dread behest,
Rise, Columbia, Columbia, brave and free,
Poise the globe and bound the sea.
In darkness wrappād, with fetters chainād,
Will ages grope, debased and blind;
With blood the human hand be stainād,
With tyrant power, the human mind.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
But, lo! across the Atlantic floods
The star-directed pilgrim sails;
See! fellād by Commerce, float thy woods;
And clothed by Ceres, wave thy vales!
Rise, Columbia, &c.
In vain shall thrones, in arms combined,
The sacred rights I gave, oppose;
In thee, the asylum of mankind,
Shall welcome nations find repose.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
Nor yet, though skillād, delight in arms;
Peace, and her offspring Arts, be thine:
The face of Freedom scarce has charms,
When, on her cheeks, no dimples shine.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
While Fame, for thee, her wreath entwines,
To bless, thy nobler triumphs prove;
And though the eagle haunts thy pines,
Beneath thy willows shield the dove.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
When bolts the flame, or whelms the wave,
Be thine to rule the wayward hour:
Bid death unbar the watery grave,
And Vulcan yield to Neptuneās power.
Rise, Columbia, &c.
Revered in arms, in peace humane:
No shore nor realm shall bound thy sway,
While all the virtues own thy reign,
And subject elements obey!
Rise, Columbia, brave and free,
Bless the globe, and rule the sea
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The history ofĀ Washington, D.C., is tied to its role as the capital of theĀ United States. The site of the District of Columbia along theĀ Potomac RiverĀ was first selected by PresidentĀ George Washington. The city came under attack during theĀ War of 1812Ā in an episode known as theĀ Burning of Washington. Upon the government's return to the capital, it had to manage the reconstruction of numerous public buildings, including theĀ White HouseĀ and theĀ United States Capitol. TheĀ McMillan PlanĀ of 1901 helped restore and beautify the downtown core area, including establishing theĀ National Mall, along with numerous monuments and museums.
Relative to other major cities with aĀ high percentage of African Americans, Washington, D.C. has had a significant black population since the city's creation. As a result, Washington became both a center ofĀ African American cultureĀ and a center of theĀ civil rights movement. Since the city government was run by theĀ U.S. federal government,Ā blackĀ andĀ whiteĀ school teachers were paid at an equal scale as workers for the federal government. It was not until theĀ administration of Woodrow Wilson, aĀ SouthernĀ DemocratĀ who had numerous Southerners in hisĀ cabinet, that federal offices and workplaces were segregated, starting in 1913.[1]Ā This situation persisted for decades: the city wasĀ racially segregatedĀ in certain facilities until the 1950s.
Neighborhoods on the eastern periphery of the central city and east of theĀ Anacostia RiverĀ tend to be disproportionately lower-income. FollowingĀ World War II, many middle-income whites moved out of the city's central and eastern sections to newer, affordable suburban housing, with commuting eased by highway construction. TheĀ assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.Ā inĀ Memphis, TennesseeĀ on April 4, 1968, sparkedĀ major riotsĀ in chieflyĀ African American neighborhoodsĀ east ofĀ Rock Creek Park. Large sections of the central city remained blighted for decades. Areas west of the Park, including virtually the entire portion of the District between theĀ GeorgetownĀ andĀ Chevy ChaseĀ neighborhoods, include some of the nation's most affluent and notable neighborhoods. During the early 20th century, theĀ U Street CorridorĀ served as an important center for African American culture in the city. TheĀ Washington MetroĀ opened in 1976. A rising economy andĀ gentrificationĀ in the late 1990s and early 2000s led to the revitalization of many downtownĀ neighborhoods.
Article One, Section 8, of theĀ United States ConstitutionĀ places the District, which isĀ not a state, under theĀ exclusive legislationĀ ofĀ Congress. Throughout its history, Washington, D.C. residents have therefore lackedĀ voting representationĀ in Congress. TheĀ Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961, gave the District three electoral votes, implicitly authorisizing it to hold an election for president and vice president. The 1973Ā District of Columbia Home Rule ActĀ provided the local government more control of affairs, including direct election of theĀ city councilĀ andĀ mayor..
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The Oslo Accords and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process
On September 13, 1993, Israeli Prime MinisterĀ Yitzhak RabinĀ and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) NegotiatorĀ Mahmoud AbbasĀ signed a Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, commonly referred to as the āOslo Accord,ā at the White House. Israel accepted the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renounced terrorism and recognized Israelās right to exist in peace. Both sides agreed that a Palestinian Authority (PA) would be established and assume governing responsibilities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five-year period. Then, permanent status talks on the issues of borders, refugees, and Jerusalem would be held. While PresidentĀ Bill ClintonāsĀ administration played a limited role in bringing the Oslo Accord into being, it would invest vast amounts of time and resources in order to help Israel and the Palestinians implement the agreement. By the time Clinton left office, however, the peace process had run aground, and a new round of Israeli-Palestinian violence had begun.
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Let's see if they will let this stand see we was never the problem in central and eastern Europe and Europe has changed to much now and the world for how they are doing things here.
Processes ofĀ decolonizationĀ inĀ UkraineĀ began during theĀ dissolution of the Soviet UnionĀ and accelerated during theĀ Revolution of Dignity, theĀ Russo-Ukrainian WarĀ and especially the full-scaleĀ Russian invasion of Ukraine.[1]
The term as used by the people of Ukraine is generally collective, encompassing bothĀ decommunizationĀ andĀ derussificationĀ in the country.[2]
During the war, the main component of Ukraine's politics of memory is decolonization, as a continuation of decommunization, which began in 2015, and deRussification, which was launched by some local authorities and right-wing activists after the full-scale Russian invasion. Decolonization of memory involves the removal of symbols from the public space, including names and memorial signs that are viewed as markers of Russian imperial policy. Ukraine aims to distance itself from the influence of Russian historiography, shape its own national historical narrative, and develop politics of memory connected with the European tradition. The intended outcome of decolonization is to sever the cultural and historical ties between Ukraine and Russia, thereby preventing anyone from considering Ukrainians and Russians as either "one nation" or "brotherly nations".[2]
Implementation of the decolonisation politics involves several components:[3]
Legislative regulation of historical memory. It has been legally implemented through fourĀ Ukrainian decommunization laws, as well as the 2023 law "On the Condemnation and Prohibition of Propaganda of Russian Imperial Policy in Ukraine and the Decolonization of Toponymy".[4][5]
Destruction of monuments, renaming of toponyms. Following the full-scale invasion, monuments and toponyms associated with Russia and the USSR began to be perceived as markers of the invader, through which the empire "branded" its territory.
Installation of monuments to the victims of Russian aggression.
Reevaluation of holidays.
Modifications in the school history curriculum. The colonial status of Ukraine within the Russian Empire/ USSR becomes the central narrative.
Removal of Russian and Soviet literature from libraries.
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The Ottoman Empire fell after World War I, when it was defeated and dismantled by treaty:Ā
Decline
The Ottoman Empire had been in decline for centuries, struggling to maintain a centralized administrative structure and bureaucracy.Ā
World War I
The Ottoman Empire fought on the side of Germany in World War I and was defeated in October 1918.Ā
Treaty
The empire was dismantled by treaty, with most Ottoman territories divided between Britain, France, Greece, and Russia.Ā
End of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire officially ended in 1922, when the title of Ottoman Sultan was eliminated.Ā The last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was deposed and left Constantinople (now Istanbul) in a British warship.Ā
Republic of Turkey
In 1923, Mustafa Kemal AtatĆ¼rk, an army officer, founded the independent Republic of Turkey.Ā He served as Turkey's first president until his death in 1938.Ā
Other new states
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire also led to the creation of other new states in the Middle East.Ā
The Ottoman Empire was created by Turkish tribes in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and was one of the most powerful states in the world during the 15th and 16th centuries.
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