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  2198.  @wavehixeno4915  During the Chola period women were treated as a valuable object and a precious metal. In times of war instead of giving them safe and security they were annexed as war booty along with other spoils of war and were transported to the home of the victorious party and then used for their filthy purposes. This practice was prevalent in the tamil country even from the Sangam age. Pattinappalai12 refers the women captives as Kontimakalir and elaborates that they were ill-treated by using them to light lamps in the temple at Kaveripoompattinam. Padirrupattu13 further states that the women captives were tonsured by cutting their hair to make robe and dragged the Kavel tree out of it by using elephants. During the Chola period the women captives were not only ill-treated and tonsured but also killed them without showing any mercy. For instance the Hottur inscription14 Satyasraya states that the Chola army after ravaging the Chalukyan country murdered many women and children. The Chola kings did not leave even the royal queen and the princess from the defeated country. They were brought home and used to satisfy their base pleasures. For instance Virarajendra, the Chola king after defeating the Chalukyan army captured the only daughter of the Chalukyan king named Naglai and after raping her he cut off her nose15. In the same way the Manimangalam inscription of Rajathiraja I states king Virasalamegan captured his wife, daughter, sister and cut off their noses16. Similarly at the battle of Koppam Rajendra II defeated the Chalukyan forces and captured the two Chalukyan queens Satiyavvai and Sangappai and took them home17. The Polonanuruva inscription18 of Mahinda II says that along with the royal treasures the Chola army of Rajaraja I carried away the queens of the Ceylonese ruler. The Pandyas also continued such inhuman practices. They forced the defeated queens to do menial services. For instance Jatavarman Sundara pandya after his victory over the Cholas had captured all women including the chief queen and other auspicious objects before the Pandya ruler19. These instances testify that the medival Tamil ruler rather considering women as their equals, treated them as objects at their disposal.
    1
  2199.  @wavehixeno4915  sources: 1. V. Balambal, Great Women of Chola dynasty, Journal of Tamil studies, Vol.X, 1976, pp 71-88. R. Nagaswamy, The position of women in Medieval Tamil Nadu-A study, Journal of Asian studies, Vol.I, No.2, March 1984,pp 95-110. 2.K.Sadasivan, Rajarajeswaram and its Talicherinnendugal, The Bulletin of the institute of the traditional cultures of South and South East Asia, Madras, 1986 january to December 1988. 3. SII, Vol.III, No. 146. 4. SII, Vol.XVI,pp. 184-193, Ouarterly journal of Mythic society, Vol.XIV, p 57. 5. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Cholas, University of Madras, 1975, pp 291-292. 6. SII, Vol.XII, No. 199 7. SII, Vol.XII, No. 224 8. R. Nagaswamy, op.cit., p. 108 9. Travels of Macro polo, p 293. 10. Indian Antiquerry, Vol. XIV, p 52. 11. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, op.cit, p. 52. 12. Pattinappalai, 11 : 246-249. 13. Padirrupattu, 50 : 15-19. 14. E.I., Vol. XIV, p 75. 15. SII, Vol.III, No. 20. 16. SII, Vol.III, No. 28. 17. SII, Vol.III, No. 29. 18. E.Z., Vol.V, No.I, pp 10-11. 19. SII, Vol. XIV, No. 372. 20. A.R.E., 230 of 1916, 1917-18, pt, II para 41. 21. A.R.E., 230 of 1922, A.R.E., 1406 of 1923 pt. II para 24, p 99. 22. SII, Vol.II, No.56, 66. 23. Dr.K. Sadasivan, Devadasi system in Medieval Tamil Nadu (Unpublished Ph.D thesis) Madurai Kamaraj University, 1987, pp 117-125, S.I.I., Vol.II, Pt. III, 24. Dr. K. Sadasivan, Rajarajeswaram and its Talichcheri Daendugal, pp 10-11. 25. K.M. Venkataramaya, Administration and social life under the Maratha rulers of Thanjavur, Thanjavur, 1984, p. 78. 26. A.R.E., No. 80 of 1913. 27. A.R.E., 86 of 1911, pt.II para 29. 28. A.R.E., 218 of 1925. 29. A.R.E., 219 of 1925. 30. A.R.E., 370 of 1916. 31. A.R.E., 248 of 1906. 32. A.R.E., 247 of 1910. 33. A.R.E., 578 of 1916. 34. A.R.E., 634 of 1920; 73 of 1921; 464 of 1918; 250 of 1915. 35. A.R.E., 376 of 1903. 36. A.R.E., 363 of 1959-1960. 37. A.R.E., 156 of 1906, A.R.E., 1907 pt.II, No. 41. 38. A.R.E., 313 of 1929.
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  3046.  @mudra5114  From the page about the vijayanagara empire: The Hindu caste system was prevalent and it influenced daily life in the empire. The rulers who occupied the top of this hierarchy assumed the honorific Varnasramadharma (lit, "helpers of the four castes"). According to Talbot, caste was more importantly determined by occupation or the professional community people belonged to, although the family lineage (Gotra) and the broad distinction described in sacred Hindu texts (the four Varnas; namely the Brahmin or priestly, the Kshatriya or warrior, the Vaishya or merchant and the Shudra or artisan) were also factors. The structure also contained sub-castes (Jati) and caste clusters.[87] According to Vanina, caste as a social identity was not fixed and was constantly changed for reasons including polity, trade and commerce, and was usually determined by context. Identification of castes and sub-castes was made based on temple affiliations, lineage, family units, royal retinues, warrior clans, occupational groups, agricultural and trade groups, devotional networks, and even priestly cabals. It was also not impossible for a caste to lose its position and prestige and slip down the ladder while others rose up the same.[88] Epigraphy studies by Talbot suggests that members within a family could have different social status based on their occupation and the upward movement of a caste or sub-caste was not uncommon based on the breakthroughs achieved by an individual or a group of individuals from the community.[89]
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  3105. Uzun Hasan's conquest of most of mainland Iran shifted the seat of power to the east, where the Aq Qoyunlu adopted Iranian customs for administration and culture. In the Iranian areas, Uzun Hasan preserved the previous bureaucratic structure along with its secretaries, who belonged to families that had in a number of instances served under different dynasties for several generations.[3] The four top civil posts of the Aq Qoyunlu were all occupied by Iranians, which under Uzun Hasan included; the vizier, who led the great council (divan); the mostawfi al-mamalek, high-ranking financial accountants; the mohrdar, who affixed the state seal; and the marakur "stable master", who supervised the royal court.[3] Culture flourished under the Aq Qoyunlu, who, although of coming from a Turkic background, sponsored Iranian culture. Uzun Hasan himself adopted it and ruled in the style of an Iranian king. Despite his Turkoman background, he was proud of being an Iranian.[44] At his new capital, Tabriz, he managed a refined Persian court. There he utilized the trappings of pre-Islamic Persian royalty and bureaucrats taken from several earlier Iranian regimes. Through the use of his increasing revenue, Uzun Hasan was able to buy the approval of the ulama (clergy) and the mainly Iranian urban elite, while also taking care of the impoverished rural inhabitants.[43] In letters from the Ottoman Sultans, when addressing the kings of Aq Qoyunlu, such titles as Arabic: ملك الملوك الأيرانية "King of Iranian Kings", Arabic: سلطان السلاطين الإيرانية "Sultan of Iranian Sultans", Persian: شاهنشاه ایران خدیو عجم Shāhanshāh-e Irān Khadiv-e Ajam "Shahanshah of Iran and Ruler of Persia", Jamshid shawkat va Fereydun rāyat va Dārā derāyat "Powerful like Jamshid, flag of Fereydun and wise like Darius" have been used.[45] Uzun Hassan also held the title Padishah-i Irān "Padishah of Iran", which was re-adopted by his distaff grandson Ismail I, founder of the Safavid Empire.[46]
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